Lecture 7. Biopotential. Electrodes (Ch. 5)

Transcription

1 Lecture 7 Biopotential Electrodes (Ch. 5)

2 Electrode Electrolyte Interface Electrode Electrolyte (neutral charge) C C+, A- in solution Current flow e- e- C C A- A- C+ C+ C+ : Cation A- : Anion e- : electron Fairly common electrode materials: Pt, Carbon,, Au, Ag, Electrode metal is use in conjunction with salt, e.g. Ag-AgCl, Pt-Pt black, or polymer coats (e.g. Nafion, to improve selectivity)

3 Electrode Electrolyte Interface General Ionic Equations a) b) C A m C n + A + + ne me a) If electrode has same material as cation, then this material gets oxidized and enters the electrolyte as a cation and electrons remain at the electrode and flow in the external circuit. b) If anion can be oxidized at the electrode to form a neutral atom, one or two electrons are given to the electrode. The dominating reaction can be inferred from the following : Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e - ) Current flow from electrolyte to electrode : Reduction (Gain of e - )

4 Half Cell Potential A characteristic potential difference established by the electrode and its surrounding electrolyte which depends on the metal, concentration of ions in solution and temperature (and some second order factors). Half cell potential cannot be measured without a second electrode. The half cell potential of the standard hydrogen electrode has been arbitrarily set to zero. Other half cell potentials are expressed as a potential difference with this electrode. Reason for Half Cell Potential : Charge Separation at Interface Oxidation or reduction reactions at the electrode-electrolyte interface lead to a double-charge layer, similar to that which exists along electrically active biological cell membranes.

5 Measuring Half Cell Potential Note: Electrode material is metal + salt or polymer selective membrane

6 Some half cell potentials Standard Hydrogen electrode Note: Ag-AgCl has low junction potential & it is also very stable -> hence used in ECG electrodes!

7 Polarization If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte, the observed half cell potential is often altered due to polarization. Overpotential Difference between observed and zero-current half cell potentials Resistance Current changes resistance of electrolyte and thus, a voltage drop results. Concentration Changes in distribution of ions at the electrodeelectrolyte interface Activation The activation energy barrier depends on the direction of current and determines kinetics V = + + V V V p R C Note: Polarization and impedance of the electrode are two of the most important electrode properties to consider. A

8 Nernst Equation When two aqueous ionic solutions of different concentration are separated by an ion-selective semi-permeable membrane, an electric potential exists across the membrane. For the general oxidation-reduction reaction α A + β B γ C + δ D + ne The Nernst equation for half cell potential is γ δ 0 RT a C a D E = E + ln α β nf a a A B Note: interested in ionic activity at the electrode (but note temp dependence where E 0 : Standard Half Cell Potential E : Half Cell Potential a : Ionic Activity (generally same as concentration) n : Number of valence electrons involved

9 Polarizable and Non-Polarizable Electrodes Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes Use for recording These are electrodes in which no actual charge crosses the electrodeelectrolyte interface when a current is applied. The current across the interface is a displacement current and the electrode behaves like a capacitor. Example : Ag/AgCl Electrode Use for Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode stimulation These are electrodes where current passes freely across the electrodeelectrolyte interface, requiring no energy to make the transition. These electrodes see no overpotentials. Example : Platinum electrode Example: Ag-AgCl is used in recording while Pt is use in stimulation

10 Ag/AgCl Electrode Relevant ionic equations Ag Ag + + Cl + Ag + e AgCl Ag + Cl - Cl 2 Governing Nernst Equation 0 RT E = E Ag + ln nf K a Cl s Solubility product of AgCl Fabrication of Ag/AgCl electrodes 1. Electrolytic deposition of AgCl 2. Sintering process forming pellet electrodes

11 Equivalent Circuit C d : capacitance of electrode-eletrolyte interface R d : resistance of electrode-eletrolyte interface R s : resistance of electrode lead wire E cell : cell potential for electrode Rd+Rs Corner frequency Rs Frequency Response

12 100 µ 100 µ Electrode Skin Interface E he Electrode Gel C d R s R d Sweat glands and ducts Alter skin transport (or deliver drugs) by: Stratum Corneum Epidermis Dermis and subcutaneous layer Nerve endings Capillary C e E se E P R u R e C P R P Pores produced by laser, ultrasound or by iontophoresis Skin impedance for 1cm 2 patch: 200 1MHz

13 Motion Artifact Why When the electrode moves with respect to the electrolyte, the distribution of the double layer of charge on polarizable electrode interface changes. This changes the half cell potential temporarily. What If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one moves with respect to the other, a potential difference appears across the electrodes known as the motion artifact. This is a source of noise and interference in biopotential measurements Motion artifact is minimal for non-polarizable electrodes

14 Body Surface Recording Electrodes Electrode metal Electrolyte 1. Metal Plate Electrodes (historic) 2. Suction Electrodes (historic interest) 3. Floating Electrodes Think of the construction of electrosurgical electrode And, how does electro-surgery work? 4. Flexible Electrodes

15 Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes Metal plate electrodes Large surface: Ancient, therefore still used, ECG Metal disk with stainless steel; platinum or gold coated EMG, EEG smaller diameters motion artifacts Disposable foam-pad: Cheap! (a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs. (b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape. (c)disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG

16 Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes Suction electrodes - No straps or adhesives required - precordial (chest) ECG - can only be used for short periods Floating electrodes - metal disk is recessed - swimming in the electrolyte gel - not in contact with the skin - reduces motion artifact Suction Electrode

17 Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes Insulating package Metal disk Double-sided Adhesive-tape ring (a) (b) Snap coated with Ag-AgCl External snap Gel-coated sponge Plastic cup Plastic disk Electrolyte gel in recess Reusable Disposable Foam pad Tack Capillary loops (c) Dead cellular material Germinating layer Floating Electrodes

18 Commonly Used Biopotential Electrodes Flexible electrodes - Body contours are often irregular - Regularly shaped rigid electrodes may not always work. - Special case : infants - Material : - Polymer or nylon with silver - Carbon filled silicon rubber (Mylar film) (a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode. (b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode. (c) Cross-sectional view of the thin-film electrode in (b).

19 Internal Electrodes Needle and wire electrodes for percutaneous measurement of biopotentials (a) Insulated needle electrode. (b) Coaxial needle electrode. (c) Bipolar coaxial electrode. (d) Fine-wire electrode connected to hypodermic needle, before being inserted. (e) Cross-sectional view of skin and muscle, showing coiled fine-wire electrode in place. The latest: BION implanted electrode for muscle recording/stimulation Alfred E. Mann Foundation

20 Fetal ECG Electrodes Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Cross-sectional view of suction electrode in place, showing penetration of probe through epidermis. (c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by corkscrew type action.

21 Contacts Exposed tip Electrode Arrays Ag/AgCl electrodes Contacts Insulated leads Ag/AgCl electrodes Insulated leads Base (a) Tines (b) Base Base Examples of microfabricated electrode arrays. (a) One-dimensional plunge electrode array, (b) Two-dimensional array, and (c) Three-dimensional array (c)

22 Microelectrodes Why Measure potential difference across cell membrane Requirements Small enough to be placed into cell Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane Typical tip diameter: microns Types Solid metal -> Tungsten microelectrodes Intracellular Extracellular Supported metal (metal contained within/outside glass needle) Glass micropipette -> with Ag-AgCl electrode metal

23 Metal Microelectrodes Extracellular recording typically in brain where you are interested in recording the firing of neurons (spikes). Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance amplifier negative capacitance amplifier! C Microns! R

24 Metal Supported Microelectrodes (a) Metal inside glass (b) Glass inside metal

25 Glass Micropipette heat pull Ag-AgCl wire+3m KCl has very low junction potential and hence very accurate for dc measurements (e.g. action potential) Fill with intracellular fluid or 3M KCl A glass micropipet electrode filled with an electrolytic solution (a) Section of fine-bore glass capillary. (b) Capillary narrowed through heating and stretching. (c) Final structure of glass-pipet microelectrode. Intracellular recording typically for recording from cells, such as cardiac myocyte Need high impedance amplifier negative capacitance amplifier!

26 Electrical Properties of Microelectrodes Metal Microelectrode Metal microelectrode with tip placed within cell Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance amplifier negative capacitance amplifier! Equivalent circuits

27 Electrical Properties of Glass Intracellular Microelectrodes Glass Micropipette Microelectrode

28 Stimulating Electrodes Features Cannot be modeled as a series resistance and capacitance (there is no single useful model) The body/electrode has a highly nonlinear response to stimulation Large currents can cause Cavitation Cell damage Heating Types of stimulating electrodes 1. Pacing 2. Ablation 3. Defibrillation Platinum electrodes: Applications: neural stimulation Modern day Pt-Ir and other exotic metal combinations to reduce polarization, improve conductance and long life/biocompatibility Steel electrodes for pacemakers and defibrillators

29 Intraocular Stimulation Electrodes Reference : Lutz Hesse, Thomas Schanze, Marcus Wilms and Marcus Eger, Implantation of retina stimulation electrodes and recording of electrical stimulation responses in the visual cortex of the cat, Graefe s Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol (2000) 238:

30 In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): challenge

31 In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): biocompatibility - variant

32 In vivo neural microsystems (FIBE): state of the art

33 Introduction: neural microsystems Instrumentation for neurophysiology Neural microelectrodes Neural Microsystems MEMS - Microsystems

34 Introduction: types of neural microsystems applications External electrodes Subdural electrodes Microelectrodes Microsensors Human level Animal level Tissue slice level Cellular level In vivo applications In vitro applications

35 Microelectronic technology for Microelectrodes Bonding pads SiO 2 insulated Au probes Exposed electrodes Insulated lead vias Silicon probe Si substrate Exposed tips (a) Beam-lead multiple electrode. (b) Multielectrode silicon probe Miniature insulating chamber Hole Lead via Channels Silicon chip (c) Silicon probe Contact Electrode metal film (d) Multiple-chamber electrode Peripheral-nerve electrode Different types of microelectrodes fabricated using microfabrication/mems technology

36 Michigan Probes for Neural Recordings

37 Neural Recording Microelectrodes Reference : KINDLUNDH.PDF

38 In vivo neural microsystems: 3 examples University of Michigan Smart comb-shape microelectrode arrays for brain stimulation and recording University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign High-density comb-shape metal microelectrode arrays for recording Fraunhofer Institute of Biomedical (FIBE) Engineering Retina implant

39 Multi-electrode Neural Recording Reference : Reference :

40 WPI s Nitric Oxide Nanosensor

41 Nitric Oxide Sensor Developed at Dr.Thakor s Lab, BME, JHU Electrochemical detection of NO Left: Schematic of the 16-electrode sensor array. Right: Close-up of a single site. The underlying metal is Au and appears reddish under the photoresist. The dark layer is C (300µm-x-300µm)

42 A E B F C G D H Cartoon of the fabrication sequence for the NO sensor array A) Bare 4 Si wafer B) 5µm of photoresist was spin-coated on to the surface, followed by a pre-bake for 1min at 90 C. C) The samples were then exposed through a mask for 16s using UV light at 365nm and an intensity of 15mW/cm 2. D) Patterned photoresist after development. E) 20nm of Ti, 150nm of Au and 50nm of C were evaporated on. F) The metal on the unexposed areas was removed by incubation in an acetone bath. G)A 2nd layer of photoresist, which serves as the insulation layer, was spun on and patterned. H) The windows in the second layer also defined the microelectrode sites.

43 NO Sensor Calibration

44 NO Sensor Calibration

45 Multichannel NO Recordings

46 Problems 1. Describe one innovative scheme for recording breathing or respiration. The applications might be respirometry/spirometry, athelets knowing what their heart rate is, paralyzed individuals who have difficulty breathing needing a respiratory sensor to stimulate and control phrenic nerve. You may select one of these or other applications, and then identify a suitable sensor. The design (develop suitable circuit) for interfacing to the sensor to get respiratory signal. 2. We would like to have a quadriplegic automatic control over the lighting in the room. Design a basic circuit to detect room light level and turn on a lamp when the light level falls below a set limit. You may consider a suitable sensor for light and you should consider a design that compares the sensor output to some predetermined threshold and produces a high voltage or delivers power to the lamp.

47 3. Electrodes in biopotential measurements. Describe the construction of commercial ECG electrode (not the cheap polymer electrode used in the lab). What is the common electrode metal, and why is it preferred? So, you are an inventor who has a better idea. Describe an improvement to make the electrode cheaper more suitable for lower noise measurement for EEG circumvent patents that are based on plastic/foam electrode body attractive to consumers for use with their ECG machines at home reduce artifact (minimize the motion of skin/electrode) in ambulatory recording 4. In a research laboratory, scientists want to record from single cells in a culture dish. They want to record action potentials from single, isolated heart cells. What kind of electrode would they need to use (describe material and design)? Give a simplified schematic (circuit model of the electrode) described in the notes given to you. What is the challenge involved in designing an amplifier for use with a microelectrode for single cell recording? I.e. what are the critical amplifier design characteristics and specifications (hint: this is not the usual differential/instrumentation amplifier)?

48 4. Electrodes and Microelectrodes (miscellaneous) How would you detect bacteria or other microorganisms in water supply? Make sure that your method distinguishes inert particulate matter from living cellular matter. Draw the equivalent circuit model of the skin and an ECG electrode. Identify the key sources of electrical interference and otherwise the elements that would likely contribute to the poor quality of recordings. Design an amplifier interface for the following two applications: Patch clamp ion channel current amplifier: Your goal is to amplify pa level current to produce 1 Volt output. Strain gauge sensor amplifier: Your goal is to convert 10 ohm change in resistance of a strain gauge to produce 1 volt output.

49 You are asked to design a laboratory set up for a Professor who is interested in making very low level ion channel current measurements from single cardiac cells using the patch clamping technique. What are the likely sources of interference? What would you do to ensure that there is minimal noise in the laboratory set up? Draw the equivalent circuit of a patch clamp glass pipette. This electrode differs slightly from the conventional microelectrode that penetrates the cell and obtains intracellular potentials, in that it seals to the cell membrane and generally measures the whole cell current. Show all the equivalent circuit elements of the electrode and the cell. Design a very simple, small circuit to measure/transduce the whole cell current from the patch clamp electrode and convert into the amplified voltage signal. For far too long the microelectrodes that have been used in the laboratory fall into two categories: glass or metal microelectrodes. These record from a single cell at a time. What is the current technology for recording from sites in the tissue from multiple cells at once (extracellularly OR intracellularly). Draw a schematic of such an electrode array. List some other types of electrodes or microelectrodes that have been developed for laboratory and research use.

50 5. Electrodes and Microelectrodes Contrast the glass microelectrode that penetrates the cell versus patch clamp electrode. Which measures what (current/voltage) and of what magnitude? Which one is bigger/smaller? What is the impedance of microelectrode vs. patch electrode? Which one could be used to record from a single sub-micron sized ion channel? For a research application, a scientist comes up with the idea of optically measuring potential on cell membrane. His basic idea is to use a dye that binds to cell surface. When the dye is excited by a bright light (superluminscent LED), it gives out fluorescence proportional to cell membrane voltage. The optical signal is picked up by a photo detector. Draw the circuit to pass a very large (about 100 ma) pulse of current through the LED to intensely illuminate the cell for very brief duration and then detect na ampere level photo current produced by the fluorescence signal You are asked to measure the impedance of the skin. In fact, lie detectors use changes in skin impedance (as a measure of autonomic reflex) to indicate whether a person is lying. Draw the equivalent circuit model of human skin and electrode. Based on reasonable estimates of the skin properties, sketch a rough frequency response of the skin (from dc to 100 khz) Now design a circuit to measure the impedance, taking care not to violate any safety consideration.

51 6. Neural electrodes/microelectrodes You want to record from neurons in the brain. However, you want to record from dozens of neurons all at once from several closely spaced microelectrodes. What material and process would you use to make the microelectrode array? What metal would you prefer to use to make electrode arrays of about 10 micron square size to make electrical contacts with dozens of neurons? What metal would you prefer to use to stimulate dozens of neurons in a deep brain microelectrode based stimulator? (which metal provides good recording vs stimulating properties and at the same time not be toxic to brain tissue)? You are asked to develop an experimental set up to record from rat brain cells using microelectrodes. What precautions would you take to minimize the electrical interference in your recording set up?

52 Question/ideas! Make a better electrode Research different electrode technologies Ion selective, immunosensors, ISFET, electrochemical MEMS microelectrode technologies