Matter, Measurement, & Stoichiometry
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1 Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; and Bruce E. Bursten Unit 3 (Chp 1,2,3): Matter, Measurement, & Stoichiometry John D. Bookstaver St. Charles Community College St. Peters, MO 2006, Prentice Hall Inc. Chemistry: The study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Ni + HCl H 2 + NiCl 2 nickel hydrochloric acid hydrogen nickel(ii) chloride solid aqueous gas solid crystals metal solution Qualitative or Quantitative Matter Atom: simplest particle with properties of element Element: sametype of atom (1 or more) H H C O O C H 2 O 2 C Compound: molecule C C different atoms bonded H 2 O CO 2 NaCl Na 1
2 chromatography distillation (boiling) Matter separate physically Mixture differences or unevenly mixed filtering cannot separate physically Physical changes uniform or evenly mixed Heterogeneous Mixture Homogeneous Mixture (suspensions/colloids) (solutions) Pure Substance separate chemically cannot separate Chemical changes Compounds Elements salt, baking soda, oxygen, iron, water, sugar hydrogen, gold NaCl NaHCO3 O2 Fe H2 Au H2O C12H22O11 Physical Separation: Filtration: Separates heterogeneous mixtures (solids from liquids). Physical Separation: Distillation: Separates solution by boiling point differences. 2
3 Physical Separation: Chromatography: Separates solution by differences in solubility (attractions). Metric Prefixes Prefix Symbol Multiplier Examples: 1,000,000,000 B 1,000,000 J 1,000 g BASE UNIT: 1m 1L 1g 0.01 m L (light wavelength) (atoms) (nuclei) g m Precision in Measurements Measuring devices have different uses and different degrees of precision. (uncertainty) % Error = Experimental Accepted x100 Accepted 3
4 Significant Digits measured digits (using marks on instrument) last estimated digit (one digit past marks) 5.23 cm do not overstate the precision cm Box & Dot 0 s Significant Digits nonzero grams Nonzero digits trailing 0 s if decimal 2. Captive Zeroes (between two sig digs) 3. Leading Zeroes (at the beginning of a number) are NEVER significant 4. Trailing Zeroes: Significant ONLY if there s a decimal What if 500 is significant to the 10 s digit? 5.0 x 10 2 Power of 10: Scientific Notation Examples: 4.2 x 10 4 = x 10 2 = positive power: move decimalright to obtain the original # in standard notation. negative power: move decimalleft to obtain the original # in standard notation. 4
5 Scientific Notation 1. Convert the numbers to scientific notation. (i) x 10 4 (ii) x 10 4 (iii) x Convert to standard notation. (i) 4.2 x ,000 (ii) x (iii) 3 x or Sigs Digs in Operations 3.48 g g = round answers to keep the fewest decimal places 5.68 g 5.7 g x or 6.40 m x 2.0 m = round answers to keep the fewest significant digits 12.8 m 2 13 m 2 Sig Digs Practice WS 1s 1. How many sig digs are in each number? (i) (ii) 4.7 x (iii) (iv) Round the answer to the correct sig digs. (i) 34.5 x (ii) 123/3 (iii) (iv) 2.50 x
6 WARM UP (for QUIZ!!!) Review WS 1s #1, 3, 10 Complete WS 1a #1, 2, 8, 9, 10 Law of Definite Proportions 2 H s & 1 O is ALWAYS water. Water is ALWAYS 2 H s & 1 O. H 2 O O H H H 2 H s & 2 O s is NOT water. XH 2 O 2 H O O elemental formulas (composition) of pure compounds cannot vary. Law of Conservation of Mass The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the same as the mass of substances present before the process took place. H O 2 H 2 2 O Balancing Equations!!! 6
7 Symbols of Elements Mass Number = p s + n s 12 6 C Element Symbol Atomic Number (Z) = p s All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons (same Z), but can have different mass numbers. HOW? element: mass: why? Isotopes same or different same or different same # of protons (& electrons), but different # of neutrons 1 1 H 2 1 H 3 1 H protium deuterium tritium Average Atomic Mass average atomic mass: calculated as a weighted average of isotopesby their relative abundances. lithium-6 (6.015 amu), which has a relative abundance of 7.50%, and lithium-7 (7.016 amu), which has a relative abundance of 92.5%. (6.015)(0.0750) + (7.016)(0.925) = 6.94 amu Avg. Mass = (Mass 1 )(%) + (Mass 2 )(%) 7
8 Mass Spectrometry atomized, ionized magnetic field element sample isotopes separated WSAtomic by Structure difference Cl (avg at. Mass) = in mass (35)(~0.75) + (37)(~0.25) =? ~75% ~25% Molecular (Covalent) Compounds Covalent compounds contain nonmetals that share electrons to form molecules. (molecular compounds) Diatomic Molecules H-air-ogens 7 These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms. 8
9 Binary Molecular Compounds list less electronegative atom first. (left to right on PT) use prefix for the number of atoms of each element. change ending to ide. CO 2 : carbon dioxide CCl 4 : carbon tetrachloride N 2 O 5 : dinitrogen pentoxide CuSO 4 5H 2 O (ionic & covalent) copper(ii) sulfate pentahydrate Cations metals lose e s (+) charge (metal) ion Ions Anions nonmetals gain e s () charge (nonmetal)ide Ionic Bonds Attraction between +/ions formed by metals & nonmetals transferring e s. 9
10 Formulas of Ionic Compounds Compounds are electrically neutral, so the formulas can be determined by: Crisscross the charges as subscripts (then erase) If needed, reduce to lowest whole number ratio. Pb 4+ O 2 Pb 2 O 4 PbO 2 Naming Ionic Compounds 1) Cation: Write metal name (ammonium NH 4+ ) For transition metals with multiple charges, write charge as Roman numeral in parentheses. Iron(II) chloride, FeCl 2 Iron(III) chloride, FeCl 3 2) Anion: Write nonmetal name with ide OR the polyatomic anion name. (ate, ite) Iron(II) sulfide, FeS Magnesium sulfate, MgSO 4 Common Polyatomic Ions * these 12 will be on Quiz 1 - all 20 Polyatomic Ions will be on Quiz 2 Name Symbol Charge *ammonium NH *acetate (ethanoate) C 2 H 3 O 2 (CH 3 COO ) 1 *hydroxide OH 1 *perchlorate ClO 4 1 *chlorate ClO 3 1 chlorite ClO 2 1 hypochlorite ClO 1 bromate BrO 3 1 iodate IO 3 1 *nitrate NO 3 1 nitrite NO 2 1 cyanide CN 1 *permanganate MnO 4 1 *bicarbonate HCO 3 1 (hydrogen carbonate) *carbonate CO *sulfate SO sulfite SO *chromate CrO dichromate Cr 2 O *phosphate PO
11 Nick and his Polyatomic Ions NO 1 3 CO 2 3 ClO 1 3 CrO 2 4 SO 2 4 PO 3 4 (nitrate) (carbonate) (chlorate) (chromate) (sulfate) (phosphate) Nick the Camel ate Clam Crepes for Supper in Phoenix with MnO 1 4 (permanganate) Mandy. #consonants = O s #vowels = charge (normal) Clam Nick Ion Name per- -ate -ate -ite hypo- -ite perchlorate ClO 4 chlorate ClO 3 chlorite ClO 2 hypochlorite ClO nitrate NO 3 nitrite NO 2 (1 more O)...(normal) (1 less O) (2 less O) Supper sulfate SO 2 4 sulfite SO 2 3 phosphate PO 3 4 Phoenix WS 2d Naming Acids Ion add H + Acid Ion Name Acid Name 4 per- -ate per- -ic acid 3 4 -ate -ic acid 2 3 -ite -ous acid 1 hypo- -ite hypo- -ous acid Name Acids from these oxyanions: nitrate NO 3 nitrite NO 2 perchlorate ClO 4 chlorate ClO 3 chlorite ClO 2 hypochlorite ClO carbonate CO 3 2 sulfate SO 4 2 sulfite SO 3 2 phosphate PO 4 3 WS 2e ClO 3 HClO 3 chloric acid Cl HCl Hydrochloric acid HF,HCl,HBr,HI Hydro- -ic acid 11
12 Chemical Equations CH 4 (g)+ 2 O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)+ 2 H 2 O(l) Chemical Equations CH 4 (g)+ 2 O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)+ 2 H 2 O(l) Reactants appear on the left side of the equation. Chemical Equations CH 4 (g)+ 2 O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)+ 2 H 2 O(l) Products appear on the right side of the equation. 12
13 Chemical Equations CH 4 (g)+ 2 O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)+ 2 H 2 O(l) States (s, l, g, aq) written in parentheses next to each compound Chemical Equations CH 4 (g)+ 2O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)+ 2H 2 O(l) Subscripts show how many atoms of each element Chemical Equations CH 4 (g)+ 2O 2 (g) CO 2 (g)+ 2H 2 O(l) Coefficients show the amount of each particle and are inserted to balance the equation. 13
14 Reaction Types Synthesis A + B AB Demo: MgO 2 Mg(s) O2(g) 2 MgO(s) Decomposition AB A + B 1 2 (50 milliseconds!) 2 NaN3(s) 2 Na(s) + 3 N2(g) 14
15 Replacement Reactions (or Displacement ) Single Replacement AB + C A + CB video (aq) + (s) (s) + (aq) Double Replacement AB + CD AD + CB Pb(NO 3 ) 2 (aq) + KI(aq) PbI 2 (s) + KNO 3 (aq) Demo: Combustion C x H y + _O 2 _CO 2 + _H 2 O hydrocarbons reacting with air (oxygen, O 2 ) WS 4a CH 4 (g) + 2 O 2 (g) C 3 H 8 (g) + 5 O 2 (g) CO 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(g) 3 CO 2 (g) + 4 H 2 O(g) Formula Weight (FW) Sum of the atomic weights for the atoms in a chemical formula Formula Weight of calcium chloride, CaCl 2, is Ca: 1(40.08 amu) + Cl: 2(35.45 amu) amu Molecular Weight (MW) Sum of the atomic weights for the atoms in a molecule or compound Molecular Weight of ethane, C 2 H 6, is C: 2(12.01 amu) + H: 6(1.008 amu) amu 15
16 Percent Composition (# of atoms)(aw) % element = (FW) x 100 % by massof each element in a compound So the percentage of carbon in ethane (C 2 H 6 ) is %C = (2)(12.01) (30.07) = x = 79.88% C x 100 A Mole is a Unit Avogadro s Number One mole of particles contains the Avogadro constant of those particles x
17 Mole Relationships One mole of atoms, ions, or molecules contains the Avogadro constant of those particles6.022 x In 1 mol Na 2 CO 3, how many Na atoms? C atoms? O atoms? How many donuts in 1 mol of donuts? How many boogers in 1 mol of boogers? Which has more atoms, 1 mol CH 3 or 1 mol NH 3? How about CH 3 CH 2 OH or H 2 SO 4? Molar Mass the mass of 1 mol of a substance (g/mol) molar mass (in g/mol) of an element is the atomic mass (in amu) on the periodic table formula weight (amu) of a compound same number as the molar mass (g/mol) of 1 mole of particles of that compound Using Moles Moles are the bridge from the particle (micro) scale to the real-world (macro) scale. (from PT) molar mass 1 mol g g 1 mol (equation sheet) Avogadro constant 6.022x mol 1 mol 6.022x10 23 macro- Mass (grams) bridge Moles (groups of 6.022x10 23 particles) micro- Particles (atoms) (molecules) (units) 17
18 Using Moles 1.What is the mass of 1 mole of copper(ii) bromide, CuBr 2?(63.55) + 2(79.90) = g = x particles 2.How many moles is 112 g of copper(ii) bromide, CuBr 2? 1 mol CuBr 112 g CuBr 2 x 2 = mol g CuBr 2 CuBr 2 3.How many particles present in each of the questions #1 above? mol x x 1023 particles 1 mol = 3.02 x particles Stoichiometry: calculations of quantities in chemical rxns how much reactant is consumed or how much product is formed Balanced chemical equations show the amount of: atoms, molecules, moles, and mass Most important are the ratios of reactants and products in moles, or mol-to-mol ratios Stoichiometric Calculations Rxn: A(aq) + 2 B(aq) C(aq) + 2 D(aq) g A??? g B OR molar mass A g A 1 mol A 1 mol A g A g B 1 mol B molar mass B mol A mol-to-mol ratio mol B Coefficients of balanced equation 2 mol B 1 mol A 1 mol A OR 2 mol B 18
19 Stoichiometric problems have 1-3 Steps: (usually) 1) Convert grams to moles (if necessary) using the molar mass (from PT) 2) Convert moles (given) to moles (wanted) using the mol ratio (from coefficients) 3) Convert moles to grams (if necessary) using the molar mass (from PT) grams A x 1 mol A. grams A x _ mol B x grams B mol A 1 mol B = 1) molar mass 2) mole ratio 3) molar mass Example : g of A gof B Solid magnesium is added to an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid. What mass of H 2 gas will be produced from completely reacting 18.0 g of HCl with magnesium metal? Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) MgCl 2 (aq) + H 2 (g) 18.0 g HCl x g of A Stoichiometric Calculations 1 mol HCl 1 mol H x 2 g H x g HCl 2 mol HCl 1 mol H 2 molar mass A mole ratio B/A HW p. 114 #58 molar mass B = g Hg 2 H 2 Types of Formulas Empirical Formulas: the lowest ratio of atoms of CH each element in a compound. 3 Molecular Formulas: C 2 H 6 the total number of atoms of each element in a compound. C 2 H 4 O C 6 H 12 O 3 molecular mass = emp. form. empirical mass multiple 19
20 Calculating Empirical Formulas from Mass % Composition Steps (rhyme) Percent to Mass assume 100 g Mass to Mole Divide by Small Times til Whole MM from PT moles by smallest to get mole ratio of atoms x (if necessary) to get whole numbers of atoms 75 % C 75 g C 6.2 mol C 25 % H 25 g H 24.8 mol H CH 4 1 C 4 H 1) Percent to Mass 2) Mass to Mole 4) Times til Whole Butane is 82.66% C and 17.34% H by mass. Determine its empirical formula g C x 1 mol C = mol C g C = 1 1 C x mol = 2 C g H x 1 mol H = mol H g H mol 3) Divide by Small = H C 2 H 5 x 2 = 5 H If molecular mass is 58 g mol 1, what is the Molecular Formula? HW p. 113 #43a, 48 molecular mass 58 C 4 H = 2 2 (C 2H 5 ) = empirical mass 10 Calculating Empirical Formulas Percent to Mass Mass to Mole Divide by Small Times til Whole 20
21 Combustion Analysis Hydrocarbons with C and H are analyzed through combustion with O 2 in a chamber. g C is from the g CO 2 produced Step 1 is combustion g H is from the g H 2 O produced to mass g X is found by subtracting (g C + g H) from g sample Example 1 When 4-ketopentenoic acid is analysed by combustion, a g sample produces g of CO 2 and g of H 2 O. Combustion Analysis The acid contains only C, H, and O. What is the empirical formula of the acid? g CO 2 x 1 mol CO 2 1 mol C g C x x g CO 2 1 mol CO 2 1 mol C? g C = g C Step 1: combustion to mass 1 mol H 2 O x 2 mol H g H g H 2 O x x g H 2 O 1 mol H 2 O 1 mol H? g H = g H g sample (0.158 g C) ( g H) =? g O = g O 21
22 0.158 g C x 1 mol C = mol C = 1.67 C g C mol x 3 = 5 C 1 mol H g H x = mol H = 2 H g H mol x 3 = 6 H g O x 1 mol O = mol O = 1 O g O mol x 3 = 3 O C 5 H 6 O 3 Combustion Analysis Example 2 A sample of a chlorohydrocarbon with a mass of g, containing C, H and Cl, was combusted in excess oxygen to yield g of CO 2 and g of H 2 O. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound. If the compound has a MW of 193 g mol 1, what is the molecular formula? g CO 2 x 1 mol CO 2 1 mol C g C x x g CO 2 1 mol CO 2 1 mol C? g C = g C Step 1: combustion to mass 1 mol H 2 O x 2 mol H g H g H 2 O x x g H 2 O 1 mol H 2 O 1 mol H? g H = g H g sample (1.712 g C) ( g H) =? g Cl = g Cl 22
23 H 2 O g C x 1 mol C = mol C = g C mol 1 mol H g H x = mol H = g H mol 2 C 5 H 1 mol Cl g Cl x = mol Cl = 1 Cl g Cl mol If the compound has a C 2 H 5 Cl MW of 193 g mol 1, what MW 193 is the molecular formula? EW = 3 HW p. 114 #52b C 6 H 15 Cl 3 How Many Cookies Can I Make? Which ingredient will run out first? If out of sugar, you should stop making cookies. Sugar is the limiting ingredient, because it will limit the amount of cookies you can make. Before After Which is limiting? 2 H 2 + O 2 2 H 2 O Initial: 10? mol 7? mol? 0 mol Change: End: 0 mol 2 mol 10 mol limiting excess 23
24 H 2 O2 Before After 2 H 2 + O 2 2 H 2 O Initial: 10? mol 7? mol? 0 mol Change: End: 0 mol 2 mol 10 mol Does limiting mean smallest amount of reactant?no! O 2 is in smallest amount, but H 2 is in smallest stoichiometric amount Find the Limiting Reactant 1) Convertreactant A to reactant B 2) Compare B available to B needed If available < needed (limiting) If available > needed (excess) Solid aluminum metal is reacted with aqueous copper(ii) chloride in solution 2 Al + 3 CuCl 2 2 AlCl Cu 54.0 g Al 4.50 mol CuCl 2 (Which is limiting?) 54.0 g Al x 1 mol Al x g Al 3 mol CuCl 2 2 mol Al = 3.00 mol CuCl 2 (4.50 mol CuCl 2 ) available>needed (3.00 mol CuCl 2 ) CuCl 2 is excess Al is limiting Theoretical Yield theoretical yield: the maximum possible amount of product that can be formed calculated by stoichiometry limited by LR (use LR only to calculate) limiting 54.0 g Al x 1 mol Al g Al x 3 mol Cu 2 mol Al x g Cu = 191 g 1 mol Cu Cu produced different from actual yield (or experimental), amount recovered in the experiment HW p. 115 #72 24
25 Percent Yield (actual yield) A comparison of the amount actually obtained to the amount it was possible to make (theoretical yield) Actual %Yield = x 100 Theoretical NOT % Error: (calculate using the LR only) % Error = Accepted Experimental x100 Accepted Percent Yield Aluminum will react with oxygen gas according to the equation below 4 Al + 3 O 2 2 Al 2 O 3 In one such reaction, 23.4 g of Al are allowed to burn in excess oxygen g of aluminum oxide are formed. What is the percent yield? (actual yield) %Yield = actual theo. Percent Yield HW p. 116 #79, 77 1mol Al 23.4 g Alx x g Al 4 Al + 3 O 2 2 Al 2 O 3 2 mol Al 2 O 3 4 mol Al 39.3 g of aluminum oxide are formed. What is the percent yield? g Al 2 O x 3 1 mol Al 2 O 3 theoretical yield = 44.2 g Al 2 O g %Yield = x g = 88.9 % 25
26 Oxyanion Names (elbo s) perchlorate ClO 4 chlorate ClO 3 chlorite ClO 2 hypochlorite ClO nitrate NO 3 nitrite NO 2 sulfate SO 4 2 sulfite SO 3 2 phosphate PO 4 3 C N O F Si P S Cl As Se Br Te I In Out Ion Name per- -ate -ate -ite hypo- -ite Naming Acids Ion add H + Acid In Out Ion Name Acid Name 4 per- -ate per- -ic acid 3 4 -ate -ic acid 2 3 -ite -ous acid 1 hypo- -ite hypo- -ous acid Name Acids from these oxyanions: WS 2e perchlorate ClO 4 chlorate ClO 3 chlorite ClO 2 hypochlorite ClO nitrate NO 3 nitrite NO 2 sulfate SO 4 2 sulfite SO
Matter, Measurement, & Stoichiometry
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