1-3 Foundations of Chemistry
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1 AP Chemistry 1-3 Foundations of Chemistry N o t e s Naming & Writing Compounds Ions Cations: Positive ions formed by the loss of electrons Anions: Negative ions formed by gaining electrons Naming Ionic Compounds Positive ion is always named first, negative ion second Find the "ate" ion (sulfate, for instance) sulfate = Examples (Just because you can name it doesn't mean it exists!) Perchlorate ClO 4 - Pernitrate 4 NO - Chlorate ClO 3 - Nitrate 3 NO - Chlorite ClO 2 - Nitrite 2 NO - hypochlorite ClO- hyponitrite NO- 4 Name Period Date / / The "ite" ion always has one less oxygen than the "ate" ion sulfite = The prefix "per" (think hyper, meaning "above") 3 is used with the "ate" prefix to indicate one more oxygen than the "ate" ion The prefix "hypo" (meaning "under" or "below") is used with the "ite" prefix to indicate one less oxygen than the "ite" ion Metals with more than one oxidation state (transition metals) must have a roman numeral to indicate the oxidation state Fe 3+ = iron (III) Mn +2 = manganese (II) : 1. sodium oxide 2. magnesium iodide 3. lithium chloride 4. beryllium bromide 5. aluminum sulfide 6. calcium bromide 7. beryllium oxide 8. Al(ClO)3 9. Ba(NO3)2 10. KHSO4 11. Cu2SO3 12. Pb(C2O4)2
2 Naming Covalent Compounds 1. Must contain two elements, BOTH nonmetals a. First element full element name prefix only if there is more than one atom b. Second element named as if it were an anion (-ide suffix) always gets a prefix mono - 1 penta - 5 octa - 8 di - 2 hexa - 6 nona - 9 tri - 3 hepta - 7 deca - 10 tetra N 2 O CO CO 16. NO NO carbon tetrabromide 19. nitrogen triiodide 20. phosphorous pentafluoride 21. silicon dioxide 22. sulfur hexachloride Naming Acids Binary Acids (two elements - hydrogen + one other) prefix "Hydro" + root of second element + "ic" suffix Oxyacids c. If the acid contains an anion whose name ends in "ate": Use root of anion name and an "ic" ending (H 2 SO 4 = sulfuric acid) d. If the acid contains an anion whose name ends in "ite": Use the root of the anion name and an "ous" ending (H 2 SO 3 = sulfurous acid) 23. HCl 24. H 2 SO HNO H 3 PO HClO 3
3 Significant Figures and Calculations A. Rules for Counting Significant Figures Number Rule Example Nonzero integers Always significant 6.34 m (3 sig figs) Leading zeroes Never significant m ( 3 sig figs) Captive zeroes Always significant (5 sig figs) Trailing zeroes Significant if after a decimal (3 sig figs) (5 sig figs) Exact numbers Infinite significance e.g. There is 1 star at the center of our solar system. There is no doubt about the number "1" Scientific notation All digits are significant x 10 6 (5 sig figs) B. Multiplication and Division Keep as many sig figs in your answer as are in the piece of data with the least number of sig figs 2.37 cm x cm x 7.4 cm = (keep two sig figs) = 2.7 x 10 2 cm 3 C. Addition and Subtraction Keep the same number of decimal places as the least precise measurement in your calculation m m m m = m (keep one decimal place) = 48.3 m D. Rules for Rounding Round at the end of a series of calculations, NOT after each step Use only the first number to the right of the last sig fig to decide whether or not to round a. Less than 5, the last significant digit is unchanged b. 5 or more, the last significant digit is increased by ,555, g + 34g = g 7mL = g 28cm 3 =
4 Dimensional Analysis Full credit can never be given for working a problem in which you do not do all of the following: 1. Observe significant figures rules 2. Label all steps of your work with the correct units 3. Correctly label and identify your answer 4. Solve the problem in a manner that can be understood by the reader. 35. If a penny weighs 2.50 grams, what would be the volume of 1 penny (density of a penny is g/ ml) 36. What will be the volume in liters of 16.0 grams of oxygen if 1 ml of oxygen weighs grams? 37. The density of sodium hydroxide solution is g/ml. What is the mass of 550 ml of this solution? 38. How large a container, in milliliters, would you need to hold 7.2 kg of gasoline? (the density of gasoline is 0.68 g/ml) 39. Light travels at a speed of 3.00 X cm/s. What is that speed in km/hr? Stoichiometry The Mole Avogadro's number x units = 1 mole Named in honor of Avogadro (he did NOT discover it) Measuring moles An element's atomic mass expressed in grams contains 1 mole of atoms of that element grams of carbon is 1 mole of carbon 12 grams of carbon-12 is 1 mole of carbon-12 A. Molar Mass (Gram molecular weight) The mass in grams of one mole of a compound The sum of the masses of the component atoms in a compound EX: Molar mass of ethane (C 2 H 6 ): Percent Composition of Compounds Calculating any percentage "The part, divided by the whole, multiplied by 100" Percentage Composition Calculate the percent of each element in the total mass of the compound
5 (#atoms of the element)(atomic mass of element) x 100 (molar mass of the compound 40. What is the percent iron in iron (III) oxide? Determining the Formula of a Compound Determining the empirical formula Determine the percentage of each element in your compound Treat % as grams, and convert grams of each element to moles of each element Find the smallest whole number ratio of atoms If the ratio is not all whole number, multiply each by an integer so that all elements are in whole number ratio Determining the molecular formula Find the empirical formula mass Divide the known molecular mass by the empirical formula mass, deriving a whole number, n Multiply the empirical formula by n to derive the molecular formula : 41. What is the empirical formula of a compound contains mol carbon, mol hydrogen, and mol oxygen. 42. What is the empirical formula of a compound consists of 72.2% magnesium and 27.8% nitrogen by mass. 43. What is the molecular formula of a compound has an empirical formula of NO 2 and a molar mass of g/mol. Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants and Products Balance the chemical equation Convert grams of reactant or product to moles Compare moles of the known to moles of the desired substance A ratio derived from the coefficients in the balanced equation Convert from moles back to grams if required Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant Concept of limiting reactant (limiting reagent): " I want to make chocolate chip cookies. I look around my kitchen (I have a BIG kitchen!) and find 40 lbs. of butter, two lbs. of salt, 1 gallon of vanilla extract, 80 lbs. of chocolate chips, 200 lbs. of flour, 150 lbs. of sugar, 150 lbs. of brown sugar, ten lbs. of baking soda and TWO eggs. It should be clear that it is the number of eggs that will determine the number of cookies that I can make."
6 The limiting reactant controls the amount of product that can form Solving limiting reactant problems Convert grams of reactants to moles Use stoichiometric ratios to determine the limiting reactant Solve as before, beginning the stoichiometric calculation with the grams of the limiting reactant Percent Yield Actual yield - what you got by actually performing the reaction Theoretical yield - what stoichiometric calculation says the reaction SHOULD have produced Actual Yield x 100% = percent yield Theoretical Yield 44. What is the maximum number of grams of PH 3 that can be formed when 6.2 g of phosphorus reacts with 6.0 g of hydrogen to form PH 3? 45. Copper is formed when aluminum reacts with cupric sulfate in a singlereplacement reaction. How many grams of copper can be obtained when 29.0 g of Al reacts with 156 g or cupric sulfate?
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