Figure S1. Refuge North N W. Stackyard Road N W. Refuge South N W. 1 km. NORTH (m) EAST (m)

Transcription

1 ORT (m) Refuge orth W -after Sandy Stackyard Road 7 9 W 5 Refuge South 7 8 W A km B 5 EAST (m) Figure S

2 Barnegat Bay LLR8 Delaware Bay LLR 8 Virginia Coast Reserve CLV Pamlico Sound CLK7 Galveston Bay Vermillion Bay Lake Borgne SRST LLR9 LLR5 Tampa Bay 5 Km Bay Figure S Wind station VEF

3 A Galveston Bay C Virginia Coast Reserve B Vermillion Bay x=7 Km d= m Km x=5 Km d= m G Tampa Bay E Lake Borgne 5 Km D Delaware Bay x=5 Km d= m Km x=5 Km d= m F Pamlico Sound Km Barnegat Bay depth limited d= m x= Km d= m x=5 Km d= m X= Km d= m Figure S Km Km 5 Km 5 Km

4 Km Bill Katrina umberto Edouard Fay George Ivan Gustav Isaac Claudette Ike Bertha ortense Bonnie Dennis Floyd Isabel Bonnie Ophelia Irene Sandy Bob Danielle Beryl Gordon Bertha Josephine Gordon Jeanne Wilma Alberto Ernesto Barry anna Tampa Bay Lake Borgne Vermillion Bay Galveston Bay Pamlico Sound Delaware Bay Virginia Coast Reserve W W 9 W 8 W 7 W W 5 W W W W W Figure S

5 % Vermillion Bay Lake Borgne Tampa Bay Galveston Bay % 9% <% % 8% % % % <% % 5% % 7% 9% <% 7% % % % % Pamlico Sound Barnegat Bay Delaware Bay Virginia Coast Reserve <% % % % 7% % % % % <% % 7% % % 7% % 5% % 5% % % <% % 8% 8% % % <% % % % % % % % 7% % <% 9% % 5% 9% Calm Light Air Light Breeze Gentle Breeze Moderate Breeze Fresh Breeze Strong Breeze ear Gale Gale Strong Gale Storm Violent Storm urricane Figure S5

6 f () Total erosion f () Total erosion Vermillion Bay Lake Borgne Tampa Bay Galveston Bay.5 Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Return period (mo) Pamlico Sound Barnegat Bay Delaware Bay Virginia Coast Reserve f () Total erosion f () Total erosion f () Total erosion f () Total erosion f () Total erosion f () Total erosion Figure S

7 Vermillion Bay Lake Borgne Tampa Bay Galveston Bay Pamlico Sound Barnegat Bay Delaware Bay Virginia Coast Reserve Figure S7

8 A Lake Borgne, USA.5 B Western Port Bay, AU.5.5 R =.98 p<.5.5 R =. p=..5 C Virginia Coast Reserve, USA (a) D Virginia Coast Reserve, USA (b).75 R =. p< R =. p<.5 E Venice lagoon, IT F Delaware Bay, USA.5.5 R =. p<.5 R =. p< G Plum Island Sound, USA R =.7 p<.5 Barnegat Bay, USA.5 7 R =.7 p<.5 Figure S8

9 Figure S9

10 E... Manasquan! Inlet Barnegat! Bay W 5!m S A Manahawkin! Bay 5 Barnegat! Inlet Little!Egg arbor 5!m Great! Bay Little!Egg Inlet 7. Figure S 7.!km 7 B 7.8

11 STORM AME DATE ACTIVE STORM CATEGORY (SSWS/WS) Bill June 9-July, Tropical Storm Katrina August -August, 5 Category 5 major hurricane umberto September -September, 7 Category hurricane Fay August 5-August 9, 8 Tropical Storm Edouard August -August, 8 Tropical storm George September 5 - October, 998 Category major hurricane Ivan September - September, Category 5 major hurricane Gustav August 5 - September 7, 8 Category major hurricane Isaac August - September, Category hurricane Gabrielle September - September 9, Category hurricane Claudette July 8 - July 7, Category hurricane Ike September - September 5, 8 Category major hurricane Bertha July 5 - July 8, 99 Category major hurricane orthense September, September, 99 Category major hurricane Bonnie August 9, August, 998 Category major hurricane Dennis August - September 7, 999 Category hurricane Floyd September 7 - September 9, 999 Category major hurricane Isabel September - September, Category 5 major hurricane Bonnie August - August, Tropical storm Ophelia September - September, 5 Category hurricane Irene August - August, Category major hurricane Sandy October - ovember, Category major hurricane Bob August - August, 99 Category major hurricane Danielle September - September, 99 Tropical storm Beryl August - August 9, 99 Tropical storm Gordon ovember 8 - ovember, 99 Category hurricane Bertha July 5 - July 8, 99 Category major hurricane Josephine October - October, 99 tropical storm Bonnie August 9 - August, 998 Category major hurricane Dennis August - September 7, 999 Category hurricane Floyd September 7 - September 9, 999 Category major hurricane Gordon September - September, Category hurricane Isabel September - September, Category 5 major hurricane Jeanne September - September 9, Category major hurricane Wilma October - October, 5 Category 5 major hurricane Alberto June - June, Tropical storm Ernesto August - September, Category hurricane Barry June - June 5, 7 Tropical storm anna August 8 - September 7, 8 Category hurricane Sandy October - ovember, Category major hurricane Table S

12 Figure S. A) Location of field measurements collected in Plum Island Sound, USA. Boundary measurements have been taken at high resolution for stretches of shoreline around m long. The three locations are Refuge orth ( W), Stackyard Road ( 7 9 W) and Refuge South ( 7 8 W). Marsh contours have been tracked using a Real-Time Kinematic-Global Positioning System (RTK-GPS) and an electronic Total Station every year from 8 to. Data were collected with an average resolution of m. When marsh contours were characterized by significant variations in boundary geometry, measurements were taken up to cm apart. B) Marsh boundary at Stackyard Road. Different colors are measurements at different years. The boundary presented in this plot is eroding at an average rate of.5 m/y. Is it possible to notice that the erosion occurred during urricane Sandy is negligible for great part of the shoreline, and smaller than the average yearly erosion. Figure S. Location of bays and wind stations used in the study for the calculation of wave power, erosion rate, and total erosion (courtesy Google Earth, see also Methods). Figure S. Detailed view of bays and wind stations used in the study for the calculation of wind waves and total erosion: A, Galveston Bay, Texas; B, Vermillion Bay, Louisiana; C, Virginia Coast Reserve, Virginia; D, Delaware Bay, Delaware; E, Lake Borgne, Louisiana; F, Pamlico Sound, orth Carolina; G, Tampa Bay, Florida;, Barnegat Bay, ew Jersey. Maximum fetch (, white line), and average water depths ( ) are indicated as well (courtesy Google Earth). Figure S. Path of major hurricanes that affected the areas of interest from 99 to (See Table S for storms category and date). Locations of studied bays are indicated.

13 Figure S5. Contribution of different wind categories to the erosion rate of each site. Plots refer to the entire period of record. Figure S. Frequency-magnitude distribution of dimensionless wave power, (dashed black line), total erosion (continuous black line), dimensionless erosion rate,, (dashed blue line), as a function of. The return period T (months), corresponding to a given wave power,, is indicated as well. Figure S7. Frequency of wave events computed using a Gumbel distribution. On the horizontal axis wave height observations are indicated, while on the vertical axis the reduced variable is shown. The blue lines fit the data according to the Gumbel distribution (See Methods). Figure S8. on dimensional wave power and non-dimensional erosion rates for each individual study site. Colors used are the same of Figure. A) Lake Borgne, USA; B) Western Port Bay, AU; C) Virginia Coast Reserve, USA (a); D) Virginia Coast Reserve, USA (b); E) Venice Lagoon, IT; F) Delaware Bay, USA; G) Plum Island Sound; ) Barnegat Bay, USA. Figure S9. Erosion rates (m/y) in Barnegat Bay. Erosion rates were obtained by digitalizing more than km of marsh shoreline using aerial images (9, 7 and ) from the digital orthophotography of ew Jersey (see also Methods). Erosion rate has been obtained by comparing images from 9, and 7 and from 7 to, dividing by the number of years,

14 and averaging between the two data-sets. Aerial images from and have been compared as well to have information about changes in marsh boundaries before and after urricane Sandy. owever, for these two years changes in marsh boundaries could not be detected at the resolution of the given images. Figure S. A) Wind rose for the Barnegat Bay-Little Egg arbor system (ational Data Buoy station LLR W) for the period from 99-. B) Bathymetry of the Barnegat-Bay Little Egg arbor system. Yellow lines indicate the boundaries of the computational domain. The model used to calculate wind waves is the Coupled-Ocean- Atmosphere-Wave-Sediment-Transport (COAWST) Modeling System,. In COAWST the ocean model ROMS, the atmospheric model WRF, the wave model SWA, and the modules of the Community Sediment Transport Model are fully coupled by means of the Model Coupling Toolkit. The ocean model ROMS is a three-dimensional, free-surface, terrain-following model solving finite difference approximations of the Reynolds Averaged avier-stokes equations, using hydrostatic and Boussinesq assumptions,. The model was run for wind speed ranging from 5 to m/s, and for different wind directions. Wind data (speed and direction) from 99 to were retrieved from a nearby OAA station (station ID LLR 8). Wave information for each point along the marsh shoreline, corresponding to different wind directions and wind speed conditions, were used to reconstruct the long-term average wave climate in the area. See also 5, for more details about the model.

15 Table S. Major hurricanes and tropical storms that have affected the areas of interest; Storm name, date, and category according to the Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale are reported. Data are available at ( References. Warner, J. C., C. R. Sherwood, R. P. Signell, C. K. arris, and. G. Arango (8), Development of a three-dimensional, regional, coupled wave, current, and sediment-transport model, Computers & Geosciences, (), 8, doi: Warner, J. C., B. Armstrong, R. e, and J. B. Zambon (), Development of a Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Wave Sediment Transport (COAWST) Modeling System, Ocean Modelling, 5(),, doi: Chassignet, E. P.,. Arango, D. Dietrich, T. Ezer, M. Ghil, D. B. aidvogel, C.-C. Ma, A. Mehra, A. M. Paiva, and Z. Sirkes (), DAMÉE-AB: the base experiments, Dynamics of Atmospheres and Oceans, ( ), 55 8, doi: Shchepetkin, A. F., and J. C. McWilliams (5), The regional oceanic modeling system (ROMS): a split-explicit, free-surface, topography-following-coordinate oceanic model, Ocean Modelling, 9(), 7, doi: 5. Defne, Z., and. Ganju (), Quantifying the Residence Time and Flushing Characteristics of a Shallow, Back-Barrier Estuary: Application of ydrodynamic and Particle Tracking Models, Estuaries and Coasts,, doi:.7/s