X-Rays From Laser Plasmas
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1 X-Rays From Laser Plasmas Generation and Applications I. C. E. TURCU CLRC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK and J. B. DANCE JOHN WILEY & SONS Chichester New York Weinheim Brisbane Singapore Toronto
2 Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements xv xvii xix 1 Introduction 1 PART I Physical Principles 2 Interaction of Soft X-Rays with Matter: Wave Behaviour (A ~ 1 nm) Proximity X-Ray Lithography for the Semiconductor Industry Resolution limits Road map for the semiconductor industry in the twenty-first century Comparison between optical and X-ray lithography Exposure geometry for proximity X-ray lithography Radiation sources for 1 nm X-ray lithography Comparison of point X-ray sources Specification of the laser plasma X-ray source for lithography Resolution and throughput of X-ray lithography using point sources Deep X-ray lithography for micromachining The LIGA method Fast-exposure LIGA for 1 nm X-rays Contact X-Ray Microscopy Exposure cell for 'water window' X-rays Comparison between electron, optical and X-ray microscopes Resolution limit Future improvements Coherent, Point-like Plasma X-Ray Sources Coherence condition Coherence measurements: Young's double-slit experiment Temporal coherence Coherent source for nm X-rays X-Ray Holography 43
3 viii Contents Gabor in-line geometry Fourier transform geometry Gabor hologram recorded with ran X-rays Hologram recording Hologram reconstruction Zone Plate X-Ray Lens Focal length of zone plate optics Resolution and efficiency of zone plate optics Imaging transmission X-ray microscope Scanning transmission X-ray microscope (STXM) STXM construction and operation STXM resolution High-resolution images of chromosomes Laser plasma X-ray source for STXM Grazing Incidence Grating X-Ray Spectrographs The grating equation Carbon plasma X-ray spectrum from Rowland circle spectrometer Laser plasma XUV spectra using a flat-field spectrometer Laser plasma VUV spectra using a near-normal incidence spectrometer VUV beamline for the plasma source Continuously tunable VUV beamline Transmission X-Ray Gratings Diffraction geometry Carbon plasma X-ray spectrum X-Ray Crystal Spectrograph Bragg condition Properties of X-ray dispersive crystals Crystal X-ray minispectrometer Iron plasma X-ray spectra Lens-less Imaging: X-Ray Pinhole Camera Imaging geometry X-ray images of copper plasma Space-resolved carbon plasma X-ray spectrum Grazing Incidence X-Ray Reflection: The Critical Angle MicroChannel Plate (MCP) X-Ray Optics Focusing geometry for the flat MCP MCP X-ray beamline for the plasma source MicroChannel plate (MCP) collimating optics for X-ray lithography Collimating geometry of slumped MCP Throughput-optimized MCP collimator for X-ray lithography MCP collimated X-ray source for the mass production of microchips 92 References 93
4 Contents ix 3 Interaction of Soft X-rays with Matter: Particle Behaviour (hv ~ 1 kev) Photoelectron Generation The Vacuum X-Ray Diode The X-ray streak camera The p-i-n X-Ray Diode Sensitivity Linearity Photographic Film for Soft X-Rays Absorption of Soft X-Rays in Matter X-Ray Filters Vanadium bandpass filter for 'water window' X-rays X-ray filters for proximity lithography Soft X-Ray Absorption in Macromolecules Soft X-ray absorption in photoresist material PMMA photoresist AZ PF514 chemically amplified photoresist EBR9 photoresist Soft X-ray absorption in biological cells: DNA damage Monolayers of V79 mammalian cells Calculation of X-ray dose DNA damage by soft X-rays 127 References Laser-Produced Plasmas Absorption of Laser Light in a Plasma Black-Body Radiation Emission of Electromagnetic Radiation from Laser-Produced Plasmas Spectral line broadening Copper plasma emission Plasma Equilibrium Models Collisional-radiative equilibrium (CRE) model Local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) model Corona equilibrium (CE) model Numerical Simulations of Carbon and Aluminium Plasma Emissions Theoretical model Simulation results: plasma parameters Simulation results: emission spectra Measurements of Laser-Produced Plasma Parameters by Other Laboratories Plasma temperature, ablation pressure and mass ablation rate X-ray emission spectra Laser to X-ray energy conversion efficiency 163 References 166 Bibliography 168
5 X Contents 5 Excimer Lasers Why Use Excimer Laser for Plasma Generation? Physics of Excimer Lasers The KrF laser transition KrF laser bandwidth: amplification of picosecond pulses Optical materials for high peak power UV laser pulses Important KrF excimer laser parameters Gain and saturation Laser energy storage time Short Pulse Energy Extraction from Excimer Amplifiers Laser energy extraction in trains of short laser pulses Laser Beam Quality High Average and Peak Power Commercial Excimer Lasers Types of commercial excimer lasers The LPX210i excimer laser 184 References 187 PART II X-ray Source Construction, Performance and Applications 6 High Power KrF Lasers for X-Ray Generation Nanosecond KrF Excimer Laser Plasma X-Ray Source Sprite e-beam pumped laser system Laser systems using 20 ns discharge-excited excimers Power oscillator-power amplifier laser system Injection-locked unstable resonator amplifier Picosecond Pulse-Train KrF Excimer System for a Plasma X-Ray Source Pulse-train ps laser oscillator and power amplifier Laser System Generating a 150 ps Pulse-Train Quenched dye laser oscillator 'Active etalon' dye laser amplifier for generating ps pulse-trains Excimer ps laser power amplifier Excimer System Producing 7 ps Pulses Description of laser system Laboratory-sized laser plasma X-ray source Generation and amplification of trains of ps pulses High average power ps excimer laser Optimization of ps excimer pulse energy Scaling of ps Excimer Systems to kw Average Power Parallel excimer final amplifiers Single kw excimer final amplifier 207 References High-Power Laser Plasma X-Ray Source X-Ray Target Chamber Optimization Laser beam focusing system 212
6 Contents XI X-ray beamlines X-ray chamber construction Towards a Debris-Free Plasma X-Ray Source KrF laser breakdown in gases X-Ray emission from copper targets in helium at atmospheric pressure Reduction of target debris by the buffer gas Atomic debris Cluster debris Wafer exposure without target debris contamination Laser to X-Ray Conversion Efficiency Optimization X-Ray Conversion Efficiency from Long Laser Pulses Angular distribution of X-ray emission Laser focusing conditions X-ray conversion efficiency measurements Discussion 'Water window' X-ray conversion efficiency Nanosecond Source Delivers 16 mw Average X-Ray Power at 1.4 nm Wavelength ps Pulse-Train Plasma Source Generates 40 mw X-Ray Average Power at 1 nm Wavelength X-Ray Conversion Efficiency Using 4 ps Excimer Laser Pulses Plasma temperature and density Maximum conversion efficiency to 1 nm X-rays Comparison with other work Parameters affecting the kev X-ray conversion efficiency X-Ray Average Power of 1 W from a 7 ps Pulse-Train Excimer Laser The concept X-ray average power output Scaling Laws for X-Ray Average Power Spatial Properties of the X-Ray Source Temporal Properties of the X-Ray Source X-Ray Source Spectral Brightness at 3.37 nm Wavelength Plasma source parameters affecting the spectral brightness Spectral brightness evaluation Photon flux Bandwidth Efficient source monochromatization X-ray source size and angular emission Comparison with other X-ray sources Spectral brightness scaling Peak spectral brightness X-Ray Source Coherence Evaluation of plasma source coherence Spatial coherence measurements Temporal coherence 259
7 xii Contents Discussion and scaling 259 References 260 Bibliography X-Ray Microscopy Holographic X-Ray Microscopy X-ray beamline for coherent'water window'x-rays Hologram recording Hologram reconstruction Future work Scanning X-Ray Microscopy Optimization of the plasma source Scanning X-ray microscope illuminated by a plasma source Scanning X-ray microscope images Scaling 273 References X-Ray Micro- and Nano-Engineering Optimization of Plasma Radiation Source for Lithography Beamlines Early Work Fabrication of 180 nm FET Gates Wafer exposure cell X-ray lithographic exposure and wafer processing Wafer alignment Lithography of the 180 nm transistor gate Transistor performance Minimization of X-ray exposure time Fabrication of Deep, Three-Dimensional Structures by LIGA Technology Drawbacks of traditional hard X-ray LIGA technique New soft X-ray LIGA technique X-ray beamline and exposure cell Repeated exposure method Deep, three-dimensional structures Cavity and waveguide structure for 2.5 THz microwaves Fast X-ray LIGA for prototyping 280 References 292 Bibliography Soft X-Ray Radiobiology Ultra-High X-Ray Dose and Dose Rate Uniformity of X-Ray Exposure X-Ray Exposure at Atmospheric Pressure Megarad X-Ray Exposures Picosecond X-Ray Exposure Interdisciplinary Collaboration 297
8 Contents хш 10.7 Cell Survival Measurements DNA Repair Kinetics X-ray irradiation automation Transient DNA repair rate after X-ray damage 301 References Conclusions 303 Index 306
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