Jagannath Institute of Management Sciences Lajpat Nagar

Transcription

1 Jgh Iu f Mgm S Ljp Ng BCA Sm IV Sfw Egg

2 Objv U - 1 : Idu Sfw Egg Suu f h U Idu Th Evvg R f Sfw Wh I Sfw Egg? Sfw Ch Sfw C Sfw Myh Pp f Sfw gg L Squ Md Wf Md Pyp Md Im Md Ey Rhp Dgm D Fw Dgm d Cx Dgm Lg d Phy DFD Lvg f DFD D Fw Dgm D Dy Objv Th hp pvd g vvw f Sfw Egg Emg Am f Sfw Egg Sfw Ch, C d Myh Pp f Sfw Egg Sfw P L Squ Md Sp Md Pypg Md

3 Idu Th u d mpxy f fw hv hgd gfy h 30 y. I h 1970, pp g p, pdud phum upu, d vd h pu fm u. Tdy pp f m mpx; ypy hv gph u f d -v hu. Thy fquy u w m p, ud dff pg ym, d ggphy dbud mh. Ry, hy h fd f dv vvd pdy fw dvpm. Th ugg y, b f w hgy, d wh umud dvpm bkg, d p wh pp u h bm dm, fw gup wk hd hy, ju y p. Th p f guu, dpb pj d hg ud m h hgd. Th Sfw Egg Iu (SEI) d gup f guu dv u mpv u dvpm p. Impvm m dy hg. N vy mmb f gz f h d hg. I y dm p mpvm ff ju h mgm fd. Cmpu f bmg u wy f f d mg f whu mpu dy wd. Yu g wy f v, yu w xp wb bk k f m, yu g by, yu g bk, yu w fd mpu p. S mpu ud vy pb fd dy, bm mp u udd d bud h mpuzd ym ffv wy. Budg uh ym y p bu qu k d pb udd d fw ym pdu wd mkg f y fm ym. F h, xp h fd hv dvd vu mhdg. Wf md f h d mhdg. L Pyp Md, Obj Od Md, Dym Sym Dvpm Md, d my h md bm vy ppu f ym dvpm. Thf, h ug d dp fw gg p, g, p vd f, d mpv h fw dvpm p d dv gd quy mb fw m d wh budg. Th Evvg R f Sfw Th fw h my hg p. Af, h vvd v h pd f m g dd d dv um. Cmpu duy h pgd bk-k pd hugh h mpu vu, d y, h wk vu ggd d/ d by h xpv pd f h d

4 m y h wb. Cmpu duy h b dvg xp mpvm p pfm, bu h pbm wh fw hv b dg. Sfw m, xd budg d fu f du fu. A p h IBM p, 31% f h pj g d bf hy mpd, 53% v-u h m by vg f 189% d f vy 100 pj, h 94. Wh Sfw Egg? Sfw h f u mp pgm h xu wh mpu f y z d hu, dum h mp hd-py d vu fm, d d h mb umb d x. I ud p f p, vd, d ud fm. Sfw g bud h fw d vuy vy h duzd wd u h dy dy. I mp bu ff y vy p f u v d h bm pvv u mm, u uu, d u vydy v. Th p bud h mpu fw h u wud k bud y ufu pdu, by ppyg p h d hgh-quy u h m h d f h pp wh w u h pdu. Fm h fw g vw, h pdu my b h pgm, dum, d d h mpu fw. Bu fm h u vwp, h pdu h u fm h mhw mk h u wd b. Sfw mp h y d uu u b pfud. A mp gw, h fw mmuy uy mp dvp hg h w mk, f, d xpv bud hgh-quy mpu pgm. Sm f h hg gd pf pp dm k wb- dg d mpm; h fu hgy dm uh bj d ym d h bd-bd k pg ym uh LINUX. Hwv, fw hgy h dvp ufu fm. Th hgy mp p, f mhd, d y f d fw gg. Sfw Egg h ym pph h dvpm, p d m f fw. Sfw Egg d wh dvpm d m f fw pdu. Sfw h bm dvm m f hum dv. Th f pgmmg y g uff u g pgm. Th u pbm h, m, m d quy f my fw pdu. Th pmy g f fw gg pvd h quy f fw wh w. Sfw Egg vv pj pg, pj mgm, ym y, dg, vd d m v. Sfw gg h h bjv f vg h pbm by pdug gd quy, mb fw, m, wh budg. T hv h bjv, w hv fu dpd m bh h quy f h pdu d h p ud dvp h pdu. Df A h f f fw gg 1968, Fz Bu dfd fw gg Th bhm d u f ud gg pp d

5 b my dvpd fw h b d wk ffy mh. Sph Shh dfd h m A dp wh m h pdu f quy fw, fw h dvd m, wh budg, d h f qum. Bh h df ppu d pb mjy. Hwv, du f mg fw, bjv w hfg pdu quy fw h mb, dvd m, wh budg, d f qum. A ppu df w b : dvpm f pdu d ym pp h ud mh. Sfw gg p vu pd mhdg dg fw. Th pu yp f gg h k d wh yp f mh h fw w b ud, hw h fw w wk wh h mh, d wh m d b pu p u by. Sfw Ch T mk h dff fm h hg pdu, mp xm h h f fw. Wh hdw bu, h hum v p my b y, dg, u, g umy d phy fm wh bud w mpu, h kh, fm dg dwg, d bd bdd pyp vv phy pdu uh hp, u bd, pw upp,. Sfw g d h h phy ym. S h h fw hv d h bu h hdw, y h pph dv mp. Ch 1 : Sfw dvpd gd; mufud h C S. Ahugh m m x bw fw dvpm d hdw mufu, h w v fudmy dff. I bh h v, hgh quy hvd hugh gd dg, bu h mufug ph f hdw du quy pbm h x y d f fw. Bh h v dpd pp, bu h hp bw pp y vyg. Th w v qu h u f pdu bu h pph dff. Sfw d gg whh m h fw pj b mgd f hy w mufug. Ch 2: Sfw d w u Th fgu 1 hw h hp bw fu d m. Cd h fu fu f m f hdw. Th hp d h bhub uv, d h hdw xhb vy hgh fu y f, df d d h fu dp dy- v f m pd f m. A m p, hwv, h fu g hdw mp uff fm h umuv ff f du, vb, bu, mpu xm, d my h vm md. S, d mpy, h hdw bg w u.

6 "If My" "W u" Tm Fg : Rhp bw fu d m Sfw upb h vm md h u hdw w u. I hy, hf, h fu uv f fw hud k h fm f h dzd uv k zg-zg fm. Udvd df w u hgh fu y h f f pgm. Hwv, h mp fw d w u. Bu d d. Bf h uv u h g dy- fu, h hg qud, ug h uv pk g. Swy, h mmum fu v bg h fw dg du hg.

7 Fu Id fu du d ff Chg Au uv Idzd uv Tm Fg : Idzd d u fu uv f fw Wh hdw mp w u, pd by p p uk h fw p p. Th fw fu d dg h p hugh whh dg d mh xub d. Thf, fw m vv m mpxy h hdw m. Ch 3 :Ahugh h duy mvg wd mp-bd mby, m fw u b um bu Cd h m whh h hdw f mpu-bd pdu dgd d bu. Th dg g dw mp hm f h dg uy, d m fudm y u h pp fu w b hvd, d h g h hf wh g f dg mp x. Eh gd u (d IC hp) h p umb, dfd d vdd fu, w-dfd f, d dd f g gud. Af h mp d, b dd ff h hf. A gg dp vv, f dd dg mp d. Sdd w d ff-h-hf gd u dd mp h ud by mh d g dg w ym. Th ub mp hv b d h h g h uy vv m f dg, h, h p f h dg h p mhg w. I h hdw wd, mp u u p f h gg p. A fw mp hud b dgd d mpmd h b ud my dff pgm. I h 1960, w bu f ubu b h w ub bd y f gg d f pp. Th ubu b ud wdfd ghm ffv m bu hd md dm f pp d xdd ghm y bu udd d uu. Md ub mp

8 pu bh d d h pg ppd h d, bg h fw g w pp fm ub p. Sfw C My duy bv hv hzd h pbm d wh fw dvpm. Th xp hv ud h mp f m f h m pu fw fu h hv ud v h p dd. Y, h g u hvd by h fw duy hv d my qu whh h m fw ppp. Sfw w m ud h y dy f mpug. Th m w ud db h mp f pd mpu pw d h mpxy f h pbm h ud b kd. I, f h dffuy f wg, uddb, d vfb mpu pgm. Th f h fw mpxy, xp, d hg. Rb G h h fu d xp pg, pu fu h md f my u. Fm h Wb Dy, dfd ug p h u f yhg; dv u m, g v. I m f v fw quy d h pd wh whh mpu-bd ym d pdu dvpd, h h b ug p, dv m, y w, vuy hg, puud by xpv hg hg dp d wh fw. Aff dfd yhg ug p d. I f m u db h pbm w hv dud h fw bu h ff h. Rgd f wh w, h f pbm h ud h dvpm f mpu fw md fw h d fu ppy. Rh, h ff mp pbm d wh hw w dvp fw, hw w upp gwg vum f xg fw, d hw w xp kp p wh gwg dmd f m fw. By h d f h 1960, hdw hd f xpy, d w ug d, wh h f fw dvpm w g m. Th pp pbm f mp, py pfmg fw bm fd h fw. U h m, h ud f my f h pp vvd h mpu duy hd b mpu m f duy. Pgmmg d u f whh w pd uvy. By 1968, bg b gy kwdgd h h mhd f pgm dvpm fwd f w dqu... H, y f dg w dvpd whh h pgm d... w dgd hd hd. Th w dm p fwd. Wh h mg f g d pwfu g pup mfm mpu (uh h IBM 360) g d mpx ym bm pb. Pp bg k bu pj fu, vu d d, h 1960 w dp f Sfw Egg w b. Nw, f h f m, h f fw w d dp w gh, dmdg muh g d d h hdw whh w u. A pgm d mpu bm p f h bu wd, h dvpm mvd u f h wd f bpk f wk d bm mm vu; h buy f fw gy dmdd pdu h w bu hgh quy, m d wh budg. My g ym f h m w bu fu - h hy w bdd,

9 dd dv y f h pd bf. Fquy, fw w v mpd, v f fuh gf vm hd b md. Th mu f wk vvd mvg fw d bug fm mpd fw, mk ub, f k db mu f m - f m h wh hd b p h wg h f p. Th fuy f h fw dm mhd h qum f h d-u. O d, fw w m mpb m; h dvp by udd wh hy hd w ppd d pdy v m. Th u f h fw w kd h v mpxy f hdw d h fw dvpm p. Th mfd f v wy: Pj ug v-budg. Pj ug v-m. Sfw w vy ff. Sfw w f w quy. Sfw f dd m qum. Pj w umgb d d dffu m. Sfw w v dvd. My f h fw pbm w ud by gy mpx hdw. I h y, Djk d h h w mpu h dy mbdd uh u fw h [h] f h wh g k h pg f mpug hd b dd by y. H bvd h h fu f hdw fw w fquy vkd. Sfw Myh My u f fw ff b d myhgy dug h dvpm f fw. Sfw myh ppgd mfm d fu. Sfw myh hd umb f bu h md hm du. Tdy, m kwdgb pf gz myh f wh hy mdg ud h hv ud u pbm f mg d h pp k. Hwv, d ud d hb dffu mdfy, d m f fw myh bvd. Mgm Myh Mg wh fw pby, k mg m dp, f ud pu m budg, kp hdu fm ppg, d mpv quy. Lk dwg p wh gp w, fw mg f gp bf fw myh, f h bf w h pu. Myh : W dy hv bk h fu f dd d pdu f budg fw, w h pvd my pp wh vyhg hy d kw? Ry : Th bk f dd my vy w x, bu ud? A fw p w f x? D f md fw gg p? I mp? I md mpv m dvy wh mg fu quy? I my, h w f h qu. Myh : My pp hv -f-h- fw dvpm, f, w buy hm h w mpu. Ry: I k muh m h h md mfm, wk, PC d hghquy 6

10 hg fw dvpm. Cmpu-dd fw gg (CASE) m mp h hdw f hvg gd quy d pduvy, y h mjy f fw dvp d u hm ffvy. Myh : If w g bhd hdu, w dd m pgmm d h up d h Mg hd p. Ry : Sfw dvpm mh p k mufug. I h wd f Bk: ddg pp fw pj mk. A f, h m my m uuv. Hwv, w pp ddd, pp wh w wkg mu pd m dug h wm, hby dug h mu f m p pduv dvpm ff. Pp b ddd bu y pd d wdd m. Myh : If I dd u u h fw pj hd py, I ju x d hm fm bud. Ry: If gz d udd hw mg d fw pj y, w vby ugg wh uu fw pj. Cum Myh A um wh qu mpu fw my b p h x dk, h gup dw h h, h mkg/ dpm, ud mpy h h qud fw ud. I my, h um bv myh bu fw bu fw mg d p d mfm. Myh d f xp (by h um) d umy, df wh h dvp. Myh : A g m f bjv uff bg wg pgm, w f h d. Ry : A p up-f df h mj u f fd fw ff. A fm d dd dp f h fm dm, fu, bhv, pfm, f, dg, d vd. Th h b dmd y f hugh mmu bw um d dvp. Myh : Pj qum uy hg, bu hg b y mmdd bu fw fxb. Ry : I u h fw qum hg, bu h mp f hg v wh h m whh dud. Fgu 3 u h mp f hg. If u gv up-f df, y qu f hg b mmdd y. Th um vw qum d mmd mdf wh vy mp. Wh hg qud dug fw dg, h mp gw pdy x

11 1x 1.5 6x Df Dvpm Af Fg : Th mp f hg Pp f Sfw Egg Sp f C Sp f g f h d f hum bg wk wh md x. A dbd by G. A. M, h hum md md dg wh ppxmy v u f d m. A u mhg h p h d d wh wh - g b p. Ahugh hum py f fmg b pp b umd, k m d pv u f b bm ufu ; h, v u. Wh pfyg h bhv f d uu mp, h f w h d b d wh: b fuy d upp f d gy. A d uu mp f u f h w dvdd muh pb p f fu. I y hpfu f h dum h w py. Fuh, mpm dum d ghm dp pf fm p m f b ghm d mdf f d gy d xp hdg. Th h f h mp f p f. Sfw g mu d wh mpx vu mpg pmz h quy f pdu. Fm h udy f ghm mpxy, w mp. Th f ff ghm f pmzg g mub quy, bu pbm qug pmz f mb f qu m wy NP-mp. Ahugh pv f, m xp mpxy hy bv h NP-mp pbm b vd by ghm h u pym m.i vw f h, mk p hdg f dff vu. Th b d h by dg wh dff vu dff m h fw dvpm p, by uug h dg h pby f hvg dff vu gd dff mp.a xmp f h, u-m ffy vu h fquy f wh h fw vu. F h, m fw g mmd dg wh ffy p. Af h fw dg m h, u m b hkd d yzd wh h m bg p. If y, h p f d h ug h g p f h um b mdfd mpv h um. Mduy Th pp f mduy pz f h pp f p f. Fwg h pp f mduy mp pg fw mp dg fuy d pby. P w f h pp dug h d vvd mduz. A m wk, db pby-dv

12 mhdgy f mduz bj-d x. Ab Th pp f b h pz f h pp f p f. Fwg h pp f b mp pg h bhv f fw mp fm h mpm. I qu g k fw d fw mp fm w p f vw: wh d, d hw d. Fu p bhv fm mpm mm u f uy upg. F xmp, mm uv ghm du x pm mk h u wk. Wh h d, h u hud b d hugh -uv h h pvd h pp vu f h x pm. Ohw, h mu d wh m mpx bhv h qu pfyg h x pm. If h mpm vd -uv ghm h h d w d b hgd. Dg by mp mhdgy f dg wh b. Th b d f dg by khd by Fw d S. Th m mp m f h mhdgy gv by My. Ap f Chg Cmpu fw umd u pbm. Th pbm m x, dm h fm h u f h fw. Th dm df h yp f d h h u d wk wh d hp bw h yp f d. Sfw dvp, h h hd, fm wh hgy h d wh d b wy. Thy d wh uu d ghm whu gd f h mg mp f h d h vvd. A fw dvp hk m f gph d gph ghm whu hg mg v d dg. Wkg u umd u pbm hu g xp f bh fw dvp d h. Sfw dvp g h dm h h wk. Thy g h vu f h : wh fm f d p m ufu h, wh kd f d u d qu p pv mu. Th g h g f pb u h fw hgy pvd. Thy g vu h pb u wh gd h ffv mg h d.. Gy Th pp f gy y d h pp f p f hg. I mp dgg fw h f fm uu d m. O x xmp f uu m h u f w dg y umb, whh h d h y 2000 pbm: fw h w gb d kpg h u f h uy. Ahugh h w-dg m ppd b h m, gd fw fquy uvv byd xpd fm. Im Dvpm Fw d S gv bf, bu hughfu, dp f m fw dvpm p. I h p, yu bud h fw m m Cy Th pp f y g f h f h d hg fm x. F xmp, dg y m f yg u d x. Th v w pup. F, mk dg h d. Sd, w pgmm um

13 p f h k qud d y, fg h pgmm md d wh m mp u. Cy v w pup dgg gph u f. F, k d f mk f u u fw. O h b m f dg wh f d, hy d hv b d f dff fw pp. Sd, u f pm u f h f mp. Gph u f ym hv f fm, p, d h vw mp h upp h mm k. A Sfw P I u p p ud fw pp. Fm h um qum h fhd pdu, h fw p h ud dm h gz d fxby f h pj. Th v dff fw p, d h db h w u dvpg vd fw. Th mdu w vg v dff fw p, udg: wf, p, xm pgmmg (XP), d g. Th wf fw p m ph hugh fw dvpm. Th wf md x mj g f dvpm: qum, dg, d,, g, m. Eh g d m wh m fxby pg g. Th wf md hud b ud pj wh fw qum hg. Th p md phd md h w pgm g hugh v f h dvpm. Th fw g hugh dm, vu, dvpm, d pg ph u h f f h pdu L Squ Md Wf Md Th wf md qu dg p, f ud fw dvpm p, whh pg fwg dy dwwd (k wf) hugh h ph f Cp, I, Ay, Dg, Cu, Tg, Pdu/Impm d M. Th wf dvpm md g h mufug d u du: hghy uud phy vm whh f-h-f hg phbvy y, f mpb. S fm fw dvpm mhdg xd h m, h hdw-d md w mpy dpd f fw dvpm. Th wf md dv m du h dg ff fm ph h h ud Fgu 1. I h md h ph h w dfd g d dg p, wh dfb dv h x ph. N h h md mm fd h qu md h fw f y.

14 . Updd Rqum Rqum Vfy Vfy Spf Vfy Dg Vfy Impm Dvpm M Ig T T Fg.: Wf Md Th md f x d g, my: Rqum Ay Ph A fw wy f g ym ( bu), wk bg by bhg h qum f ym m d h g m ub f h qum fw. Th ym vw wh h fw mu hv f wh h m uh hdw, pp d h u. Sym h b d vy qum f h x f fw y y. S f h ym p, hud b gd d pu p. I m, x h mxmum upu, h ym hud b -gd d pud up. O h d ym gd ud, h dvpm m ud h fw qum f h ym. I h qum y ph : Th pbm pfd g wh h dd v bjv (g) Th dfd Spf ph Th p kw fby udy. I h ph, h dvpm m v h um d ud h ym. Thy vg h d f pb fw um h gv ym. By h d f h fby udy, h m fuh dum h hd

15 h dff pf mmd f h dd ym. I ud h p gm,, pj hdu, g d... Th qum ghg p fd d fud py fw. T udd h u f h pgm() b bu, h ym g Ay mu udd h fm dm f h fw, w qud fu, bhvu, pfm d fg. Th pup f h ph fd h d d df h pbm h d b vd. I h pf ph h ym pf pdud fm h dd df f h w p bv. Th dum hud y df h pdu fu. N h m x, h qum y d pf ph mbd d pd g ph. Sym d fw dg ph I h ph f h fw dvpm p, h fw v uu d u dfd. I m f h /v hgy, h umb f dd f h pkg hu, h db dg, h d uu dg... dfd h ph. A fw dvpm md hu d. Ay d Dg vy u h wh dvpm y. Ay gh h dg ph ud b vy xpv v h g f h fw dvpm. Muh k dug h ph. Th g ym f h pdu dvpd h ph. I h ym d fw dg ph, h ym pf d fw p. Th fw g h g d wh: D uu Sfw hu Aghm d d If p Th hdw qum dmd h g g wh pu f h v ym hu. By h d f h g h fw g hud b b dfy h hp bw h hdw, fw d h d f. Ay fu h pf hud dy b pd dw m Impm d g ph Th dg mu b d mh-db fm. Th d g p pfm h k. If h dg pfmd dd m, d g b mphd whu muh mp. Pgmmg k mp, p, dbugg... ud g h d. Dff hgh v pgmmg gug k C, C++, P, Jv ud f dg. Wh p h yp f pp, h gh pgmmg gug h. I h mpm d g ph g h dg d h fw dm Dd dum fm h dg ph gfy du h dg ff. Tg h g fu mkg u h y dfd d h h fw m qud pf. O h d gd, h fw pgm g bg. Dff g mhdg vb uv h bug h w mmd dug h pvu ph. Dff g d mhdg dy vb. Sm mp bud h w g h ' md' f h w dvpm p.

16 Ig d ym g ph I h g d ym g ph h pgm u gd d d u h h mp ym m h fw qum. Af h g h fw dvd h um [Dvb Th fw pdu dvd h f p g. M ph Th fw w dfy udg hg dvd h um. Th b my f h hg u. Chg ud hpp bu f m uxpd pu vu h ym. I dd, h hg h ym ud dy ff h fw p. Th fw hud b dvpd mmd hg h ud hpp dug h p mpm pd. Th m ph uuy h g g f h fw dvpm. I h ph h fw updd : M h hgg um d Adpd mmd hg h x vm C d vgh pvuy udd h g ph Ehg h ffy f h fw Obv h fd bk p w f b pd h md. F xmp pbm/upd h dg ph qu v h pf ph. Wh hg md y ph, h v dum hud b updd f h hg. Advg Tg h vy ph f h wf md I fd dpd pph I dum dv, h, dum pdud vy g Ddvg Th wf md h d d h m wdy ud pdgm. Hwv, my pj y fw qu fw. Th du h h pbm d wh gd fm. Nmy: I y p dy, hu hg my u db fu h pj pg. A Th uuy y h vgu d f xy wh qud fm h fw pdu, h WM h dffuy mmdg h u uy h x h bgg f h pj. Th um y wkg v f h pdu f h b dd. Th my u d f y udd pbm ppd h g. Pyp Md A pyp wkg md h fuy quv mp f h pdu. A pyp ypy mu y fw p f h fu f h vu pgm, d my b mpy dff fm h u mpm. Th v pup f pyp w u f h fw vu dvp pp f h dg f h vu pdu by uy yg hm u, h h hvg p d vu h dg bd dp. Pypg b ud by d u db d pv qum h dvp hv dd, g h pyp b ky f h mm

17 hp bw u pvd d h. I my h y h g vw f wh xpd fm h fw pdu. I uh wh h b f dd fm gdg h pu h ym, h pg d d h upu qum, h pypg md my b mpyd. Th md f mp h fxby f h dvpm p by wg h d xpm wh wkg p f h pdu. Th dvpm p y u h fd wh h fug f h pyp. A h g h dvp dm h pf f h d. Th p f pypg vv h fwg p Idfy b qum Dm b qum udg h pu d upu fm dd. D, uh uy, ypy b gd. Dvp I Pyp Th pyp dvpd h ud y u f. Rvw Th um, udg d-u, xm h pyp d pvd fdbk dd hg. Rv d Eh h Pyp Ug h fdbk bh h pf d h pyp b mpvd. Ng bu wh wh h p f h /pdu my b y. If hg dud h p f p #3 d #4 my b dd. Th fwg xm w v f h pypg md: V I Th pph, ud Fg 2.2, u h pyp m f quky dmg h d f h ; ddd h pf hv b gd. Th mph f h pyp pg h p f h fw h w b vb h /u (.g. pu pph d upu fm). Thu d m f h pyp hdy wk.

18 Chgd qum Rqum Vfy Rpd Pypg Vfy Spf (w) Vfy Dg Vfy Dvpm M Ig T M Advg f pypg Fg Pyp dvpm V I Th my dvg ug pypg fw dvpm m gb, m b. Rdud m d : Pypg mpv h quy f qum d pf pvdd dvp. Bu hg xpy m mpm hy dd dvpm, h y dm f wh h u y w u f d xpv fw. Impvd d d u vvm: Pypg qu u vvm d w hm d wh pyp wg hm pvd b d m

19 mp fdbk d pf. Th p f h pyp bg xmd by h u pv my muddg d m mmu h u wh h d bv h h udd wh hy d. S u kw h pbm dm b h y h dvpm m d, d u f pdu h h g gb d gb quy. Th f pdu m ky fy h u d f k, f d pfm. Ddvg f pypg Ug, php mug, pypg hv ddvg. Iuff y: Th fu md pyp d dvp fm ppy yzg h mp pj. Th d vkg b u, pp f mp pf h v f md pyp py gd f pj h hd m. Fuh, pyp md fuy my w f h pyp ud h b f f dvb, whh my b d f dvp fud budg pyp md. U fu f pyp d fhd ym: U bg hk h pyp, dd b hw wy, uy f ym h my d b fhd phd. (Thy, f xmp, f uw f h ff dd dd -hkg d uy fu whh pyp my hv.) Th d hm xp h pyp uy md h pfm f h f ym wh h h f h dvp. U bm hd fu h w udd pyp f d d h mvd fm h pf f f ym. If u b qu ppd fu b udd h f ym h d f. Dvp muddg f u bjv: Dvp my um h u h h bjv (.g. dv fuy m d wh budg), whu uddg wd mm u. F xmp, u pv dg Ep fw (.g. Pp Sf) v my hv dm f udg (wh hg ggd d dpyd dff gd vw) whu bg d h h fu dmd dd dg d f qu m hdw hd x db. U mgh bv hy dmd udg vy fd, wh dvp mgh hk h fu p bu hy hv md ump bu h x f u qum. If h u pvd h mmd dvy bf h u qum w vwd, dvp bw k d hd p, puy f u mgm dv m dvg fm h fu mpm qum. Dvp hm pyp: Dvp bm hd pyp hy hv p g d f ff pdug; h d pbm k mpg v md pyp f ym wh d hv ppp udyg hu. (Th my ugg h hwwy pypg, h h vuy pypg, hud b ud.) Exv dvpm m f h pyp: A ky ppy pypg h f h uppd b d quky. If h dvp gh f h f, hy vy

20 w my y dvp pyp h mpx. Wh h pyp hw wy h py dvpd qum h pvd my yd uff pduvy mk up f h m p dvpg h pyp. U bm uk db v d f h pyp, hdg up h dvpm m d dyg h f pdu. Im Md Th m bud md mhd f fw dvpm wh h md dgd, mpmd d d my ( m ddd h m) u h pdu fhd. I vv bh dvpm d m. Th pdu dfd fhd wh f f qum. Th md mb h m f h wf md wh h v phphy f pypg. Th pdu dmpd umb f mp, h f whh dgd d bu py (md bud). Eh mp dvd h wh mp. Th w p uz f pdu d vd g dvpm m. I g p uy wh h ubqu g w vdd. Th md f dvpm hp h um ff f dug mpy w ym. Th md, ud Fg. 2.6, dv m fm h wy whh h fw bu. M pfy, h md dgd, mpmd d d f m bud u h pdu fhd. A bud f p f d fm vu mdu h gh pvd pf fu. A h g f h IM w bud dd d h gd h uu, whh d wh. N h h pdu y dfd fhd wh f f qum. Th md mb h m f h wf md wh h v phphy f pypg. Hwv, uk pypg h IM fu h dvy f p pdu h d f h m.

21 Im Md A xmp f h m pph bvd h dvpm f wd pg pp wh h fwg v pvdd ubqu bud: 1. B f mgm, dg d dum pdu fu 2. Advd dg d dum pdu fu 3. Sp d gmm hkg 4. Adv pg yu Th f m uuy h pdu whh dd h b qum f h ym. Th myb h b ud by h ubjd dd vw dvp p f h x m. Th p dd h mdf f h pdu b m h d f h um, d h dvy f ddy fuy. M pfy, h g Th g vu h bud y mpmd Th dvp m f dvpg h bud Th ug vu-- h ud f g whh bud dvd x Ey h bud wh h hgh vu-- h h pvd h wh h m fuy (vu) f h. Ug h mhd h h ub pdu f h dvpm g.

22 Th Sp Md Th p md, gy ppd by Bhm, vuy fw p md h up h v u f pypg wh h d d ym p f h qu md. I pvd h p f pd dvpm f m v f h fw. I h p md, fw dvpd f m. Dug, h m mgh b pp md pyp. Dug, gy m mp v f h gd ym pdud. Th p md fw dvpm p whh mb m f dg d pypg, u dvg f p-dw d bm-up p. I kw h p fy md. I ym dvpm mhd (SDM) ud fm hgy. Th md mb h fu f h pypg md d h wf md. Th p md dd f g, xpv d mpd pj. By Bhm dfd h p md h 1988 "A Sp Md f Sfw Dvpm d Ehm". Th md w h f md xp v m f dvpm. Th w ypy 6 mh 2 y g. Eh ph wh dg g d d wh h vwg h pg. Ay d gg ff ppd h ph f h pj, kpg h g f h pj md. Th p h p md b gzd fw: Nw ym qum dfd d. Th uuy vv vwg umb f u pg h x u d h p f h xg ym. A pmy dg d f h w ym. F pyp f h w ym ud fm h pmy dg. Sd pyp vvd fw: vug h f pyp f gh, wk, d k; dfg h qum f h d pyp pg d dgg h d pyp ug d g h d pyp Th p md dvdd umb f fmwk v d k g. Sp md x k g:- Cum Cmmu Tk qud bh ffv mmu bw dvp d um. Pg Tk qud df u, m d h pj d fm. Rk Ay Tk qud bh h d mgm k. Egg Tk qud bud m p f h pp. Cu & R Tk qud u,, d pvd u upp (.. dum d g) Cum Evu Tk qud b um fdbk bd vu f h fw p d dug h gg g d mpmd dug h g

23 Pg 1. Dm bjv 2. Idfy d v k. Dvpm d T Rvw Rk y Rk y Rk y Op P Pyp 1 yp Pyp 2 C p C Rqum f p f qu p m Dv Vf pm & Vd p Vf T p & Vd 4. P h x T R Impm Df D d d g C d Ig I h bv dgm h d dm umuv mp h y. Agu dm pg wh h y. Fu qud p fu dd pd h y. Th G g, Rk mmz, Dvpm d Pg. Av f h F d Sd Qud bjv, dv v d dv. I hp gh fm k k, pypg, mu, bhmkg, f hkg, dmg u uvy d mdg. I hp

24 hg h b v. Av f h Thd d Fuh Qud dvp h pdu f h y bd k k pfm u f, pgm dvpm f- d Vd f h wk pdu h d f h pd, dd whh u, vw f pg x y, g u d gh mmm. Th p md f ud g pj. F m pj, h p f g fw dvpm bmg v. Th US my h dpd h p md f Fuu Cmb Sym pgm. Th p md pph h dvpm f g ym d fw. I u pypg k du mhm, bu m mp b h dvp ppy h pypg pph y g h vu f h pdu. I m h ym pw pph uggd by h f y, bu p v fmwk h m y f h wd. Advg f h Sp Md Th p md pm quy u hugh pypg h g ym dvpm. I pvd fxby I dvpm d fu mp u I pvd h bw g d fu upu I pvd pd h g d mmz my k I ug pypg d mmz uy bv pf I b wk wh dd I p xg md Lw k f mkg mk wf Sb qum fm Gd um upp, mgm, g, d mkg vuy T vby pd pypg fm I mmd m w dvpm I fu quy u d g hdw d fw dvpm Ddvg f h Sp Md Cum my f u ug h md Gd k-m k qud Sp md w dd b mmu. I g Th p md dmd d d f h k dug g f h pj d, f ppy ppd, hud du k bf hy bm pbm. I my b dffu v um (puy u) h h vuy pph b. I dmd db k m xp d h xp f u. If mj k uvd d mgd, pbm w udubdy u. Fy, h md h b ud wdy h qu pypg pdgm.

25 Cmp f Sfw P Md Sgh Wk Typ f Pj Wf A hg pph Smp Rqum fz y h du Ey xu Dw hg pj, um f Iuv d g Cy m g xg mu ym My h udd hdw hgy U fdbk wd Eug q. bg Pypg Hp qum F hvy p Sym wh v u Wh Rdu k Pby hgh qum Ld b ym Dw hg Wh UI vy mp Iv Eh hv F bu wh m Rgu/quk dv pg vhd f Rdu k C my wk Wh k f g Ammd hg d my pj b k Aw u fdbk hv b ud Wh qum Aw b x Sym hu d kw d w b p uu my uff kw y wh m Avd q. bg fqu hg md Pz qum Th Sfw Rqum Adg h IEEE, Rqum d f pby, dd by u v pbm hv bjv. Bdy qum b fd fwg 1. Fu Rqum; 2. N-Fu Rqum; d 3. Dm Rqum. Rqum Egg P Rqum gg h p f g, dumg, yzg, vdg, d mgg qum. Dff pph qum gg x, m m mp h h. Whv h pph k, u h h w-dfd mhdgy d h dum x f h g. A qum mdg vv h

26 hqu dd xp qum wy h pu u d. A qum mdg u hqu h g fm hgh-v b m hugh pudd-k pf, fm g, d gph p. Whv p hqu ud, h qum g mu wy v gh mp, p, d dd pf f ym qum. Rqum gg ub-dp f fw gg h d wh dmg h g, fu, d f fw ym. Rqum gg vv h hp f h f p pf f fw bhv, d h vu v m d fw fm. Idy, h qum gg p bg wh fby udy vy, whh d fby p. I pb h h fby udy my d d u wh h dvpm f h fw pdu. If h fby udy ugg h h pdu hud b dvpd, h qum y bg. Th Rqum Egg P f h m v, 1. Rqum E; 2. Rqum Spf; d 3. Rqum Vd. Rqum E Th Rqum E vy d wh uddg f pbm dm h g f h pj bu h bgg f h pj, qum fuzzy d y udd by h ym y. S, h b u qu h dm pf kwdg d bm xp h. Th p f qug dm pf kwdg/fm hugh vu hqu bud h Rqum Md d Rqum E. Th vu u f h dm kwdg b fw- 1. U f h pf pbm dm; 2. Exg Sfw f m yp d Bu Mu; d 3. Sdd,. Rqum Spf Th Rqum Spf vy qud pdu fm fw qum md. Th Fu d N-Fu pp f h ym pfyg by h qum md g wh h mpd h ym. Th md ud uv g f h Sym Dvpm Lf Cy (SDLC). A, ud Agm bw h d u d h dvp. Th umb f uud d bj d mhdg h hv b ppd dvp h md. Rqum Vd Th vy uuy dfd p u h y f qum md wh p u d. Th vd d f h f md w f h md md. Fwg p hud b fwd wh vdg qum- ). Eu h h qum fg wh h qum. b). Eu h h qum mp p. ). Eu h qum.

27 If h qum vdd ppy, u h qum df d f wk d mdf. Sm f h ffv wy vd qum Rvw Dug vw d u d dvp bh udy d d h qum. Pypg I pypg xub md f h pdu wh mm f qum bu d dmd h um. Cum u h pyp u h m h d. T g Fm h, md u h pb dg f h d vy qum dumd hw h d d h qum. Ky Chg I Eg Rqum Th x d fm f h pdu qum h m mp vy f Sfw Lf Cy d h p f my ky hg, m f hm gv bw- ) Uddg g d mpx ym qum. b) Idfyg h qum. ) Smm u bu h d. d) Cfg qum. ) Udfd bud f h ym. f) Pg f h ym. g) Pp dum f h qum. h) Mg m d budg f h um. Sfw Rqum Spf (SRS) Rqum y uuy h f ph f g- fw dvpm pj. Th pup f h ph dfy d dum h x qum f h ym. I udk f fby udy h b pfmd df h p d bf f fw ym. I wh h qum, muh qud bw h u d h dvp. Th w mj v h ph: pbm uddg y d qum pf. I pbm y, h y h udd h pbm d x. Th Sfw Pj d by h d. I h bgg, h d h md f vu pp h gz. Th qum y h dfy h qum by kg h pp d udd h d. Ay qud dd w fu wh umg xg mu p. Suh y ypy qu hugh uddg f h xg ym, p f whh hv b umd. A uddg dd f h mp d h ym, mj wh k, h pup f h dff h pfmd, d h pu d upu. Th qu g wh d d u, w udyg h xg mu d pdu. Wh h y f h u ym, h y udd h f um d wh ff h umd ym mgh hv. Uddg h xg ym uuy ju h g vy pbm y, d vy mp. Th g f h vy udd h qum f h

28 w ym h b dvpd. Uddg h pp f ym h d x m dffu d qu v hkg. Th pbm m mpx bu umd ym ff pb h d x hw. Cquy, v h my y kw h d f h ym. Th y h mk h w f h w pb, hu hpg bh, d y, dm h qum f h w ym. I Sfw Rqum Ay, h w m p 1. S A f ym p m d bu h ym. Wh ug, ym f vwd pg f h v pb, d h bj bd y pfmd f h. 2. Pj I pj, ym d dfd fm mup p f vw. Wh ug pj, h ym yzd fm h dff vwp. Th dff pj bd mbd fm h y f h mp ym. Th dfd mhdgy ud h Ifm pph f Ay. Th y w hv dud f mg wh h d d-u. Thy pvd xp h y bu h wk, h vm d h d. Ay dum dbg h wk h gz my b gv, g wh upu f h xg mhd f pfmg h k. O h y udd h ym h du h x fw mg k f f h p h d udd. I h f mg, h y y xp h wh h udd h ym hud d. O h pbm yzd d h udd, h qum mu b pfd h qum pf dum. F qum pf h fm f dum, m pf gug h b. Th qum dum mu pfy fu d pfm qum; h fm f pu d upu; d dg h x du p, m, vm, d uy. Sfw Rqum Ay (SRA) d wh dum d Sfw Rqum Spf (SRS) whh db h mp x bhv f h ppd fw. Th SRS dum h mpy db wh h ppd fw hud d whu dbg hw h fw w d. Th b g f h qum ph pdu h SRS, whh db h mp x bhv f h ppd fw. Nd f SRS Th h mj p, d w ym 1. Th C 2. Th U d 3. Th Dvp. Smhw, h qum f h ym h w fy h d f h d h f h u hv b mmud h dvp. Th pbm h h uuy d udd h fw d h dvpm p, d h dvp f d udd h pbm. Th u mmu gp bw h p

29 vvd h dvpm pj. SRS h mdum hugh whh h d u d uy pfd; gd SRS hud fy h p vvd h dvpm p. C / U Vd d Pbm Pdu d Vd Ay dp SRS Advg f SRS Th Rqum P 1. SRS bh h b f gm bw h d h upp wh h fw pdu w d. Thugh SRS h y db h wh h xp fm h upp, d h dvp y udd h wh pb bud h fw. Whu uh gm m gud h h dvpm v, h pj w hv uhppy d uhppy dvp. 2. SRS pvd f f vd f h f pdu. Th SRS hp h dm whh h fw m h qum. Whu SRS, h wy f dvp v h h qum hv b fufd. Tb C f fxg qum Nm f h ph C (p-h) Rqum Ay 2 Dg 5 Cdg 15 Ap 50 Op d M If w w hgh quy f fw h h fw, w mu bg wh hgh quy SRS. 4. A hgh quy SRS du h dvpm. Hgh quy m, um d dvp f, ym vd, hgh quy f h f fw d h dud dvpm. Ey - Rhp Dgm Ey-Rhp Dgm p h bj-hp p gph fm. Thu, w y h h pmy g f E-R dgm p d bj g wh h -hp. Th vu mp f d mdg dbd bv fm h pmy

30 mp f y-hp dgm. ER md f d u h fu db d : E whh pfy d wd m pp. Rhp g dff d pg mgfu dpd bw hm. Abu whh pfy vu pp f d vvd ym. I ER dgm, d bj pd by bd g. A ' bu pd by bd p d d bj by gh. Th w wy whh hp pd ER dgm. O wy u bd gh. Ah, kw v wy u bd dmd d dpd d bj by gh. Th w wy hw fg, wh mpy wk mpy. Th bu f w hw. Add Nm Nm Bh Ph Empy Wk f Cmpy N. Emp-d Sy Add Fg. Exmp f ER dgm, () ER Dgm wh Lbd Sgh L (b) ER Dgm wh Lbd Dmd C I dd b ER, y p d bj yp hhy. F xmp, d bj mb ph b gd GSM, C dpy d Cm wh dpy, whh fuh b gd. I hw fg.

31 : D Objv yp Hhy ER dgm pvd h m -v wy f xmg d wh h x f fw. T ER dgm, h fw-g p hud b fwd: Cum kd - h pmy d b-j h h pp bu p dd. Th hg d bj u h g f f pu d h pdg upu d bj, Evy bj dd m d hp (f y) wh h bj dmd, Rhp p ud whv x,

32 F vy bj-hp p, dm ' dy d mdy, O h g wh h hp m-py dmd, df h bu, Th Fmz d m-z h y hp dgm, d Rp h bv p d mdg mp. D Fw Dgm d Cx Dgm "A pf mg hp udd p m y". Dgm mu hp udd h bj bhd h wkg f fw. A ppy dfd fw md dgm, y hp udd h wkg f h md, bu hp h fw dg bu d f vd wh. A D Fw Dgm (DFD) gph p h dp h fm fw d h fm h ppd d mv fm pu upu. I b ud p fw y v f b. I f, DFD' my b pd v h p g fm fw d fu d. Thf, pvd mhm f fu mdg w fm fw mdg. DFD md ym ug x ( v) whh df h yp d mu f d h fw p, whh fm d h upu, whh h fw m h p x upu fw. D my v fw fm m dy g (gy dbd d dy). Th gph p mk gd f mmu bw dg d y. DFD' dfd v, wh vy v dg h v f b, w dfg g d f h fu g f h ym. A 0'v DFD, kw Cx Fudm Sym Md, p h fw m g bubb, wh pu d upu d whh dd mg d ugg w pvy. Add p d fm fw ph pd p bubb 0'v DFD pd v 1, whh h pd v 2, d. Th v pd y vw f h ym hvd. Fwg ymb ud DFD -

33 1) Bubb: A (md bubb) ud dp p. Bh pu d upu p dfw. I hw fg Fg.: Bubb 2) Aw: D fw pd by wh w, ud fg Fg. 8.9: Aw L Shw Ipu d Oupu Fw Wd d M ud g hd w p d d d dub hdd w u m uu d Rg: Rg ud p h d ud h ym. Dg d hv y v hm. Thy h uppy v d. I h fg. 8.11, w upp d v hw g. S, upp y A upp m k dvd h v y B. XP A Supp Ey B Rv Ey Rg Ey Ev g y bh uppy d v d. (4) P L : P ud dp d. P my v d fm d. D fw bw w d. A w wd d

34 d wg d d d w fm d dp v f d fm, whh hw dgmmy fg. D S Rp () () () (v) (v) (v) (v) (A) Th m gud d fw dgm. Thy gv bw : Lv 0 DFD hud dp h ym g bubb g wh h d pg wh h ym. Pmy pu hud b fuy d. Rfm hud bg by g h dd p, d bj d b p-d h x v. A w d bubb hud b md wh mgfu m. Ifm fw uy mu b md h x v. Oy bubb hud b fd m. A gd dfw dgm hud p: ). p, b). p whh kg pu d, ). fw g h h, d, d). pg f d fw dff fw wh dff mg. Lg d Phy DFD' A h DFD' dud pd g p/p h b pfmd by h ym. Suh DFD' kw Lg DFD'. Thy pfy vu g p. Id f g p, f DFD p bj whh pfm h phy p, h kw Phy DFD. I fg. 8.13, h g DFD hw p h d f vd. If d pd h h vy f p updd hw jd.

35 Fg.: Lg DFDFg.: Lg DFD I fg. 8.14, h phy DFD hw wh vd qu f h dvy h hkd by h k, f pd h d hw f jd h ud bk.. Fg: Phy DFD

36 UNIT 2 Sfw Pj Mgm Cp Suu f h u Objv Idu Sfw mgm v Pj pg, mg d Pj C Em Pbm fw pj Pj Em Pj mgm pph P bd mgm Sfw Szg Pbm Bd Em P Bd Em Cm A Emp Em Md F Eff Rk Mgm Objv

37 Af gg hugh h u ud w b b : Idu T udd h pj mgm p Udd vu fw mgm v Udd bu pj mgm pph. Udd bu pj mgm f y. Pj Mgm u ym d dpd pph dvp fw. Pj Mgm v ud: dmg h p f h pj, pj pg, mpm f pj mp my m, vw f pj v, d g f d dug h pj. Th v fw h yp f y f fw pj. A pj h pf d mp d pdu v. P d p pm fu wk f pvy pdug h m pdu v. M jb f pj mgm hv pj g d bjv wh dg h pj. C ud b p, m d budg. Th hg pmz h d g f pu. Sfw pj mgm ub-dp f pj mgm whh fw pj pd, md d d. A fw dvpm p fw f y fw p uu mpd h dvpm f fw pdu. Th v md f uh p, h dbg pph vy f k v h k p dug h p. A fw dvpm p d pmy wh h

38 pdu p f fw dvpm. Th p my upp h mgm f fw dvpm, d gy ddg h bu. Rqum y mp p f h fw gg p, whh fw dvp dfy h d qum f, d dpdg up h qum hy dg u. Rk mgm h p f mug k d h dvpg g mg h k. Th g ud fg h k h py, vdg k, dug gv ff f k, d pg m qu f pu k. Sfw pj mgm p f fw gg. Sfw mg pb f pg d hdug pj dvpm. Thy u h h wk bg d u p h qud dd d m pg hk h h dvpm m d wh h budg. Sfw pj mgm d wh v vvd ug h fw dvd m d hdu d d wh h qum f h g dvpg d pug h fw. Pj mgm dd bu fw dvpm wy h fu budg d hdu h by h g dvpg h fw. Sfw mgm v Pj pg d hdug Pj m d Pj mg P d vu Rp wg d p Pj pg, mg d Sfw pj mgm bg wh f v whh vy kw pj pg. Th fu f pj pg dfy h p f h pj, m h wk vvd, d pj hdu. Pj pg bg wh qum h df h fw b dvpd. Th pj p h dvpd db h k h w d u. Th d f pj mg d kp h m d mgm updd h pj dvpm. If h pj dv fm h p, h h pj mg k h pbm. Pj mg d vv u mg. Sfw pj pg mp m f pj, m f ff, hw my u w b ud d hw muh m w k bud pf fw ym pdu. Sfw mg d fw g u h fm d fm h d m d d fm h d pj. Pj C Em Em wh h pdu dp. Th pbm dmpd m pbm d m d ug h p h d d xp. Mkg m f, hdu d u d xp d p h d. Pbm mpxy d k dd bf mkg f m. Pj mpxy h g ff pg. Th xp f h m wk d h mpxy. Wh h gwh f pj z h dpdy mg h fw m. Exp y ufu h dg d v bu

39 dffu mpm dug fw pg. Pj z ff h p d ufu f m. Pbm fw pj Th pbm fw pj b fd by dvp, pj mg w um/. Pbm h "dvp" m du k f kwdg bu dvpg dd, k f updd dum, dd, d hg f pp. Sfw Mum Sz-Od M Sz-d fw m dvd by mzg quy d pduvy mu by dg h z f h fw pdu. If fw dvpm gz m d h fm f b h z-d mu, gz hv b hw Fgu 5.1. Th b h fw dvpm pj h h b mpd v h p fw y d pdg mu f h pj. A p h b y (b 5.1) f pj Aph: 11,999 f d w dvpd wh 23 p-mh f ff f $160,000. I hud b fd h h ff d dd h b p fw gg v uh y, dg, d, d, ju dg. Tb : Sz Od M Pj LOC Eff $(000) Pp. d. E Df Pp Aph 11, B 26, Gmm... 20, R fm f pj Aph d h 360 pg f dum w dvpd, 120 w dd bf h fw w d, d 24 df w ud f h um wh h f y f p. Th pp wkd h dvpm f fw f h fd pj. I d dvp m h b pd wh m m fm h pj, w h f d u mz vu. Fm h b d d h b, f mp z-d m b dvpd f h pj: 5. E p KLOC (hud f d). 6. Df p KLOC.

40 4. $ p LOC. 5. Pg f dum p KLOC. I dd, h g m b mpud: 4. E p p-mh. 5. LOC p p-mh. 6. $ p pg f dum. Fu-Od M Th yp f m u mu f h fuy dvd by h pp mz vu. A fuy b mud dy, mu b dvd dy ug h d mu. Fu-d m w f ppd mu d h Fu P. Fu p dvd ug mp hp bd ub (d) mu f fw fm dm d m f fw mpxy. Fu p mpud by mpg h gv b. (b. 5.2) Fv fm dm h dmd d u pvdd h ppp um f h b. Ifm dm vu dfd h fwg m: 4. Numb f u pu: Eh u pu h pvd d pp d d h fw ud. Ipu hud b dguhd fm qu, whh ud py. 5. Numb f u upu: Eh u upu h pvd pp- d fm hu ud. Oupu f p d, mg,. 6. Numb f u qu: A quy dfd - pu h u h gf m mmd fw p h fm f - upu. Eh d quy ud. 7. Numb f f: Eh g m f ud. 8. Numb f x f: A mh-db f (.g., d f g md)h ud m fm h ym ud. O h d hv b d, mpxy vu d wh h u. Ogz h u fu p mhd dvp f dmg whh pu y mp, vg, mpx.

41 Tb Cmpug fu p Wghg f Mum pm Cu Smp Avg Cmpx Numb f u pu x = Numb f u upu x = Numb f u qu x = Numb f f x = Numb f x f x = Cu T mpu fu p (FP), h fwg hp ud: FP = u x [ um [F]] Wh u h um f FP bd fm h bv b. Th F ( = 1 14) mpxy djum vu bd p h qu k, ) D h ym qu b bkup d vy? j) A d mmu qud? k) A h dbud pg fu? ) I pfm? m) W h ym u xg, hvy uzd p vm? ) D h ym qu - d y? ) D h - d y qu h pu b bu v mup p? p) A h m f updd -? q) A h pu, upu, f, qu mpx? ) I h pg mpx? ) I h d dgd b -ub? ) A v d udd h dg? u) I h ym dgd f mup dff gz? v) I h pp dgd f hg d f u by h u? Eh f h qu wd ug h g fm 0 ( mp ppb) 5 (buy ). Th vu Equ d h wghg f h ppd fm dm u dmd mpy. O fu p hv b ud, hy ud m gu SLOC, wy mz mu f fw pduvy, quy, d h bu:

42 3. E d df p Fu P. 4. C p Fu P. 5. Pg f dum p Fu P. 6. Fu P p p-mh. Pj Pg F ufu pj pp mgm d h kd ff. Lk f y u pj f. Pp mgm d hkp qud f ffv mg f h pj. Cg v dvpm, ug quy, fyg h d f h d p md- qu fu mgm f h pj. Sfw Sp Th vy f vy fw pj pg h dm f fw p. Fu w pfm d fw dug ym gg hud b d bh pj p h uddb h h w mgm v. A m f fw p mu b budd. Th Sfw p db h d d b pd, fu, f, by, pfm d. Fu wh dbd h m f p vud d fd pvd m d fm p h bgg f m. Sm dg f dmp ufu bu d hdu m fuy d. C dfy m pd h fw by x hdw, vb mmy, h xg ym. Pj mgm p f fw dvpm. A g fw dvpm pj vv my pp wkg gh f g pd. T m h, quy, d hdu bjv, u hv b ppy d h vy f h pj, d pg f dff v h b md d v k, f dd. F g pj, pp mgm p f u. Th Mgm P mp pf v h d b d by h Pj Mgm u w d hgh quy bjv. Th Mgm P b gupd h m g:

43 Pg Mg & C Tm Ay Mgm P M Vu Dvpm P Mgm C Tm Fgu : Rhp bw dvpm p d mgm p Pj mgm bg wh pg. Th g f h ph dvp p f fw dvpm, fwg whh h bjv f h pj b m ufuy d ffy. Pp pg f ufu pj. Th pj p pvd h fudm b f pj mgm. A fw p uuy pdud bf h dvpm vy bg d updd dvpm pd d d bu pg f h pj bm vb. Dug pg, h mj v m, hdu d m dm, ffg, quy p, d 'g d mg p'. I d hdu m, h d m dd f ufuy mpg h pj md. I dd, d hdu f h dff v f h dvpm p b ud md, h dvpm p y pf h v, h d m qum f hm. A p pvd mhd f hdg hg d mhd f mg pj. Pj pg udubdy h g m mp mgm vy, d upu f h fm h b f mg d. Th b mp b ud dvd fm IEEE Sdd , IEEE Sdd f Sfw Pj Mgm P. Th SPMP bg wh v pg h h v d fm. Eh h dp f h fm d wh. Th dum pdud h ph h Sfw Pj Mgm P (SPMP), whh db h fwg 4. C Em; 5. Shdu Em; 6. P/Sff/Mpw P; 7. Sfw Quy Au P; 8. Cfgu Mgm P;

44 3. Rk Mgm P; d 4. Mg P,. Ru Th d fw pg k m f h u qud mph h fw dvpm ff. Fgu 5.2 ud pymd hw h Sfw Dvpm Ru. Hum Ru (Pp) Rub fw Ru Evm Ru Fgu Sfw Pj Ru I h Dvpm Evm, h hdw d fw, h bm f h u pymd d pvd h fud f fuu upp h fw dvpm ff. Rub Sfw Cmp by fw budg bk whh dmy du dvpm d dvy. Th Rub Sfw Cmp d h mdd f h Pymd. A h p f h pymd h pmy u Hum (Pp). Eh u pfd wh fu h: 5. Dp f h u, 6. A m f vby, 7. Tm wh h u w b qud; d 8. Du f m h u w b ppd. Th w h b vwd m wdw. 2) Hum Ru Th p bg by vug p d g h k qud mp dvpm. Bh gz p (.g., mg, fw g) d py (.g., mmu, db, /v) pfd. F m pj ( p p y ), g dvdu my pfm fw gg k, ug wh p p h qum f h pj.

45 Th umb f pp qud f fw pj b dmd y f m f dvpm ff (.g., p p mh) md. 3) Rub Sfw Ru Ruby h p f h Cmp-bd fw gg (CBSE), whh m h d u f fw budg bk. Suh budg bk, f d mp, mu b gd f y f, ddzd f y pp, d vddf y g. Adg B, fwg fu fw u g hud b dd pg pd: (v) Off-h-hf mp: Exg fw h b qud fm hd py h h bdvpd y f p pj. COTS (mm ff-h-hf) mp puhd fm hd py, dy f u h u pj, d hv b fuy vdd. (x) Fu-xp mp: Exg pf, dg, d, d dvpd fp pj h m h fw b bu f h u pj. Mmb f h u fw m hv hd fu xp h pp pd by h mp. Thf, mdf qud f fu-xp mp w b f vy w-k. (x) P-xp mp: Exg pf, dg, d, d dvpdf p pj h d h fw b bu f h u pj bu w qu ub mdf. Mmb f h u fw m hv y md xp h pp pd by h mp. Thf, mdf qud f p-xp mp hv f dg f k. (x) Nw mp: Sfw mp h mu b bu by h fw m pfy fh d f h u pj. Th fwg gud hud b dd by h fw p wh ub mp pfd u: (B) If ff-h-hf mp m pj qum, qu hm. Th f qu d g f ff-h-hf mp w m wy b h h dvp quv fw. Rk vy w. (C) If fu-xp mp vb, h k d wh mdf d g gy pb. Th pj p hud f h u f h mp. (D) If p-xp mp vb, h u f h u pj mu b yzd. If xv mdf qud bf h mp b ppy gd wh h. I dy, h v f mpxy f fw pj vy hgh. Th xp f h d u vy hgh. Th why h dvpm f fw pdu dg h um pf dffu k d h d f xp h fd d wd vw wd h pbm. A fw pdu bm g d m mpx, gy m dffu w pdu bd xg fw pdu d v h pdu dmdd by

46 mk d mpv d. A pg ym (OS) xmp f vy g, mpx fw pdu. Th pg ym mg d hdu h u f mpu dv whh d, d pvd vu fu mdu d f h my b ud by pp mph vu k. A v mpu gy xu pg ym mg vu p f h mpu ug. F xmp, h pg ym ypy pb f mgg g dv w pu d/ upu dv, d g h xu f m dd pp. I uuy u bf h mpu xu h pg ym. A v pg ym h g umb f f (.g., hud) f u d/ d. Suh u, wh xud by h mpu, pvd h pg ym fuy. I dd h g umb f f, h pg ym uuy h g umb f dpd mg f. F, my f my qu h f m h f f h dd fuy b d u. Ahugh h pg ym mufu my kw f uh dpd h m f, b dffu f u, dm, h fw dvp bu h dpd. Th pv ubm, fw dvp my kw wh d u h f ff h pu f() wh whh hy d. I bm m dffu f dvp d h dvp d kp k f fu f fw pdu wh bgg d m mpd. S, h Sfw Dmp uuy dfd bkg up ym mp p. O h dg ( puh), bud,, d dpy h py. A mpz hm pg f fm whh fw pdu bu. Adg h hm, mp bj p m f h f. Th mp bj h mf h df h mp d pf y dpd bw h mp d h bj. Gupg bj dg h dpd pfd mf pm budg h fw pdu. A fu bj dfd by mp bj p fu f h fw pdu d pdu bj dfd by fu bj p h fw pdu. Th mpuz hu df h p, mp py, d pgmmg md f mgg mp bh dug dg-m d u-m. Th v g bf f mpz udg gy, pd, uppby, d d vu ppu. Dmp hqu ud m h d ff by dmpg h mp pj pbm ubqu p. I gd mhd b ud, bu mm qu pb vu h m f h fw m. S, f h pbm b vd mpd, ubdvdd p. S, f h ubdv vd -by- d f h h u b mbd fm wh. Th fw dmp hqu ud m h z, d ff by fwg wy,. Sfw Szg; b. Pbm bd m d;. P- bd m.

47 Sfw Szg Whu fw, mpu hdw u. Sfw dvpm puh f fw h mj h f h mpug budg f y gz. S, fw ym vy mp d vub f y dvp bu u. Sg fw h my bu whh mu, k, 1. Th Sz (L f Cd); 2. Th C f Dvpm; 3. Th f M; 4. Th m f dvpm ( p-mh); 5. Th z f mmy qud ( by); d. F h mum f bv f, qu bvu h dff bv f h m mpu pgm my g dff u. F xmp, mu h f d f mpu pgm, bv my u h p h pgm udg bk d mm; wh h bv my u bk d mm pp h pgm. S, dff p g dff u. H, dd d p df d gud f h f d m qud h dff p my g d u f h m pgm. Fm m--m dff m hv b dvpd qufy vu bu f fw. H, w gupd f hm w bd g 1. Pdu M A d, h fw m, k Sz, whh b dvd fmh fw f, d Pdu M. 2. P M A h mum f fw pdu whh dpd up hdvpm vm d P M. Cmpu Pgm w dvpd f vg dff pbm d hvg dff bjv. S, hy w dff gug. Sm pgm f gd quy bu hy hv gd dum d w wh h u f d hqu f Sfw Egg. Wh h hvg pg, mm d dum. Dp h, hv z d mm fu whh pgm h. Mum f z vy mp m f fw duy d h m h k 1. I vy mp d y ud wh h pgm mpd. 2. C d ff m bd h z m py mp fw dvpm pj. 3. Mmy qum b ddd h b f z mum. 4. Sfw pduvy b pdd by h m f z. Th fw z dpd up h fwg f 1. Th dg whh h z md, 2. Th by h m ff, m d, d 3. Ny f by f h qum d h vm whh pj bu. Sm f h z mu. Su L f Cd (LOC bd m) b. Tk Cu. Fu P M (FP bd m) ). Su L f Cd (LOC bd m)

48 SLOC fw m ud mu h mu f d pgm. SLOC ypy ud m h mu f ff h w b qud dvp pgm w qufy pduvy ff h fw pdud. O f h pbm wh ug SLOC h b h k f ddzd dû. Phy SLOC mu (ug phy dg k pg) v h fmg d y v f h gug ud dvp h d. Lg SLOC mu h umb f m. Lg SLOC dû d pu mpu gug. Lg SLOC v fmg d y v, bu v pgmmg gug d hgy. SLOC mu f d whu dû, whh u pbm bu h SLOC p u f ukw u. Addy, SLOC h hd-gd hud b py dûd fm u-gd SLOC, d w SLOC mu b pd fm ud SLOC. Dp h pbm, SLOC u hv b d w u b ufuy ud by my mp, gz, d pj u f fw z. I h wd, w y h h h mp m ug h z f mpu pgm. Th m kg fu f h m p df. Th g gm mg h h SLOC mu hud ud dum d bk bu bk p f dum f h pgm. Th b d ff h ffy d fuy f h pgm. Adg h mu, y xub m hud b udd h u bu y hy upp h fu f h pgm. Th m u b ppu d ufu fw duy bu f mpy. Th SLOC mu gv qu wgh h f d. Bu, f m m f pgm m dffu d d mphd h h. Th h mj dwbk SLOC z mu f g k b vd by gvg m wgh h, whh dffu d d hv m uff. b). Tk Cu Tk Cu mu h u f h dwbk f SLOC z mu. Adg h Tk Cu Cu h b ymb ud d f hmv. Th b ymb d Tk. Ad dg h Hd Thy, mpu pgm dd b f k, whh my b fd h p pd. A p b dfd ymb kywd whh pf k hm,, p ymb, puu mk, v wd (.g. D, READ, WHILE.) d fu m (.g. pf().). A Sfw S m b dfd m f h b ymb. Th b mu 1 = Cu f uqu p. 2 = Cu f uqu pd. N1 = Cu f u f p.

49 N2 = Cu f u f pd. A k whh v h d ud p h d d pd. A pd ud vb, b. I m f h k ud, h z f h pgm b xpd N = N1 + N2 Fu P M (FP bd m) I g d mpx fw pdu, z b md b wy hugh g u d Mdu. A Mdu gm f d whh my b mpd py d dpdy. I g d mpx pj pd h umb f mdu h h f d. F xmp, f w qu mdu d um h h mdu hv f d; h h z m f h pdu bu x 100 SLOC. Bu, h m qu u f dvdg pgm mdu. Du h b f fwd u, h m my b ufu. A mdu my f my fu d fu my b dfd gup f xub m whh pfm dfd k. Th umb f SLOC f fu hud b vy g. S, wh w u h umb f fu pgm, w y m h z f h mpu pgm. Fu p mu dvd fuy wy h dpd f h hgy ud dvp h ym. Fu p mpu z by ug fu mp (pu, upu, x f, f, d qu). A ud Fgu gv bw, fu p pj wh w b pvdd by h ym h h hw bg h d pdu w b. Th pph m pjg h f by pg wh pb w hv h h by z. Wh h z f ppd fw pdu pjd fm qum, h pj h k h f p wd mg h d m h w b dd f dvpm. Th pbm f pj mgm, k h f m mgm, fd pb b mg m,, d pfm. Shdu pfm m mp du um pu, d pdu pfm mph.of h pdu k g du um vw d hdu pfm fu df u f h hdw. Wh w w d w bm w mgd, ug k. Th m by whh fw pj bh uh b hugh h z pj ud m h wk, dvp h hdu, d m h hgg z pj, whh h b p. If h pj fwd, h hugh p pp f p, u f h fm, mgm mp, h b b hd.

50 Tb gv bw, u m dvg d ddvg f SLOC u d fu p. Fu P u f mu - Fuy vwd fm h u ppv - A u wh w h ym qum, ju fw p Fgu Fu P u ppv Advg d Ddvg f SLOC d Fu P Cu Advg Ddvg L f Ey Cmpu N Iv pmz d Cd Iuv Mup df f wh u f d; u gd d my fy f SLOC u. Gu Nu by-pdu f p V dmy bd hgy ud Dffu qum y h pj Sm gug dffu u umy. Fu Mu ym fm U ppv mu b vb f dd u P u ppv B dfd ug N fm vb y pj u Rvy dpd N uv mg f Thgy M k Fuy Cu mu b d

51 Pbm Bd Em Dug fw pj m h SLOC d FP d ud w wy A m vb z h m f h fw A b m d fm vu p pj d ud mb wh m vb dvp d ff pj. H, SLOC d FP bh dff m hqu bu bh hv umb f h mm. Th pj p dfy h m f fw p d fm h m mp dmp fw pbm fu h h b md dvduy. SLOC FP h md f h fu. Avy, h p my h h mp f zg. B pduvy m k SLOC p P Mh h ppd h ppp m vb d ff f h fu dvd. Fu m mbd pdu v m f h pj. Wh w pj md, hud f b d dm, d h h ppp dm vg f pduvy hud b ud gg h m. S, wy mmb h pj hud b gupd by h pp, m z, mpxy f h pp d h v pm. L dm vg hud h b mpud. Th SLOC d FP m hqu dff h v f d qud f dmp d h g f h pg. Wh SLOC ud h m vb, mp buy d f k db v f d. F FP m, dmp wk dffy. Rh h fug fu, h f h fm dm h- pu, upu, d f, qu, d x f. Th u m h b ud dv FP vu h b d p d d ud g m. Th pj p bg by mg g f vu f h fu fm dm vu. Ug h d, h p m pm d pm z vu f h fu u f h fm dm vu. A mp d f h dg f uy pvdd wh g f vu pfd. A h p xpd vu h b mpud by h pj p. Th xpd vu f h m vb (z):s, b mpud wghd vg f h pm (Sp), m ky (Sm), d pm (Sp) m. F xmp, S = (Sp + 4Sm + Sp) / 6 Gv hv wgh h m ky m d fw b pbby dbu. W um h h vy m pbby h u z u w f ud h pm pm vu. Th h SLOC d FP pduvy d b ppd f h dm f h xpd vu f h m vb. I uggd h y m hqu mu b hkd wh h pph. P Bd Em T b h m h p h w b ud h m mm hqu f mg h pj. I h p bd m hqu, h p dmpd vy m f k d h ff qud mph h k md. P-bd m bg wh dp f fw fu bd fm h pj p d f fw p v mu b pfmd f h fu.

52 Cmmm u Rk Ay u Cumv O pbm fu d p v ddd, h p m h ff p-mh h w b qud mph h fw p vy f h fw fu. Fu d d fw p v my b pd p f b - gv bw. Th d u h mx f h b. Avg bu p u ff h ppd h ff md f h p vy. I vy ky h h bu w vy f h k. S ff hvy vvd y v gy m xpv h ju ff vvd dg k, d g, d y g. Th b gv bw- Tb P Bd Em Avy Pg Egg Cu T Tk Ay Dg Cd T UICF / DGA / DGA / 8.50 CGDF / 6.00 DBM / 5.75 PCF / 4.25 DAM / 5.00 T / %Eff 1% 1% 1% 8% 45% 10% 36% UICF: U If d C F Ay 2DGA: Tw Dm Gm 3DGA: Th Dm Gm Ay DBM: D B Mgm CGDF: Cmpu Gph Dpy F PCF: Pph C Fu DAM: Dg Ay Mdu C d ff f h fu d fw p vy mpud, h p. If p-bd m pfmd dpdy f LOC FP m, w w hv w h m f d ff h my b mpd d d. If bh f m hw b gm, h gd bv h h m

53 b. Ohw, h u f h dmp hqu hw gm; fuh vg d y mu b dud by h m. COCOMO (Cuv CO m MOd) A Emp Em Md f Eff Th Cuv C Md (COCOMO) w dvpd by Bhm 1981 d bd udy f 63 pj. I m h ff m f p-mh f h h pj ff. Th ff m ud dvpm, mgm, d upp k. Th m hugh h md wh b m f h dvpm ff fm h m f hud f dvd f u d (KDLOC). Af h p dm f 15 mupyg f fm dff bu f h pj; d h dju h ff m by mupyg h m wh h mupyg f. Adg h COCOMO, Sfw pj gzd h yp Og : Pj whh h gz h db xp d qum. Suh ym uuy dvpd by m m. F xmp, Smp bu ym. Embddd : Th gz h xp. Sym hghy ffd fm h vmk fw, pp hdw. F xmp, R m ym. Smdhd : Th h mb f bh ym. F xmp, dvpg wpg ym d mp bu mgm ym. Th b fu f h h yp f pj hw h gv b- Tb Typ f Pj Og Embddd Smdhd Pj Sz Sm Ay Sz Lg Typ f Pj Idpd Pdu mbddd Idpd vm wh v Dvpm Exv Md Md Exp Evm Exv Nm Cdb Kwdg C Vu = 2.4, b=1.05 = 3.6, b=1.20 = 3.0, b=1.12 Th m whh d m m dmd by qu, ug KDLOC h mum f z. T dm h ff E p-mh, h fwg qu ud

54 Wh, E = ff p-mh E = * (SIZE) b, b = C, vu dpd h yp f hpj SIZE = KDLOC S, ff fmu f h yp f pj - Og : E = 2.4 * (KDLOC) 1.05 Embddd : E = 3.6 * (KDLOC) 1.20 Smdhd : E = 3.0 * (KDLOC) 1.12 Adg h Imd COCOMO d Dd COCOMO, Bhm ppd ff dff bu whh ud mu d C dv bu. A h f dpd Pdu bu, Cmpu bu, P bu d Pj bu bu. Th C Dv Abu hw bw, Pdu Abu Sfw Rby Sz f pp db Cmpxy Cmpu Abu Pfm Rqum Mmy C Vy f Vu Mh Evm Tu Aud Tm P Abu Ay Cpby Sfw Egg Cpby App Exp Vu Mh Exp Pgmmg Lgug Exp Pj Abu U f Sfw T App f Sfw Egg Mhd Rqud Dvpm Shdu Eh f h dv f gv pj d : Vy Lw Hgh Vy Hgh Ex Hgh Th db h pp whh dv pp pj. Vu pdg h f h x g dfd. Th mupyg f f 15 dv mupd g h Eff Adjum F (EAF). Th F Eff Em (E) bd by mupyg h m by h EAF: E = (KDLOC) b *EAF Bhm ppd dd dvpm m (D) bd h pj yp d pj z mh. F dff yp f pj, D mpud ug fmu gv ud F Og Pj : D = 2.5 * (E) 0.38 F Smdhd : D = 2.5 * (E) 0.35 F Embddd : D = 2.5 * (E) 0.32 Ex - Th vu f z KDLOC d dff dv f pj gv

55 bw-sz = 200 KDLOC C dv: Sfw Rby: 1.15 U f Sfw T: 0.91 Pdu Cmpxy: 0.85 Exu Tm C: 1.00 Cu h ff f h yp f pj.. Og, Smdhd, d Embddd ug COCOMO Md. Su Eff Adjum F (EAF) : EAF = 1.15 * 0.91*0.85*1.00 = Eff f h yp f pj : Og Pj E = 3.2 * (200) 1.05 * = 742 p mh Smdhd Pj E = 3.0 * (200) 1.12 * = 1012 p mh Embddd Pj E = 2.8 * (200) 1.2 * = 1437 p mh Rk Mgm Sfw Egg h h d mg dp d d wh h ym v, pdu, d m f hgh quy fw pdu dvd m, mmum. Th gb IT fw duy d b h y pj vu, d wkg fw. Adg uvy p, muh 40% f fw dvpm b p wkg fw. Fuhm, vg y x fw pj w b dvd m d budg, d m g gz y 10% f h pj w m m d budg. Gv fgu u m mj u f pj fu. Mg Iu - u f 65 p f fu Ippp pj uu d h f mmu Ippp u (p k d kwdg mx) Ippp m Ippp pg mhd (p hdug d kg) Ippp u buy- Ippp k mgm Th Iu - u f 35 p f fu Ippp fw qum Ippp h dg Ippp dvpm d g Ippp h dum Ippp h upp Ippp h vw (d quy ud) Fgu Mj u f pj fu Th m fw k mgm m dff hg my dff pp,

56 dg wh m by k w d udd h quv, quv d phph p f wh u k. Th umu df wh u k; ppp df fw: Rk mb f bm v fu d h qu f h v fu ym p, u vm. A k g fm ph ( f ym; f f pm dby) ggb ( ym dmg juy). (Guh, 1994) If xmd h u h h d bw, uuy d up dwm mj u f pj fu. Bu Pg gy Lg (g) P f pyg Pym d y P f um pp Tmg f du Skhd fu Thg Pdu m Dg mpby Pdu m Dg f v Ppy hgy P () Thgy uqu Fgu Sm h duy-wd fw pj Rgd f z d p, vy pj hd by k. Sfw pj py upb k du h pd f dvpm h fd d pdy hgg vm. By Bhm dfd Tp-10 f mj fw dvpm wh k mu b ddd: 1. Sk hf 2. U hdu d budg 3. Sby f x ff-h-hf fw 4. Rqum mmh 5. U f mmh 6. Ahu, pfm, quy 7. Rqum hg 8. Lgy fw 9. Exy pfmd k 10. Sg mpu pb. Adg MMu h ky k ud h fwg- 1. Ifuu m 2. Pum f fuu 3. Mu- fw dvpm 4. Ud dvpm mhdg 5. Rguy dd (f xmp, hh d fy) 6. Idqu gy 7. Dvpm m vvd mup pj h v 8. Cmmu pbm

57 9. A v b y f S f p.

58 w d v p m v y m p x

59 v y. T h f w p b m h u m u

60 m w h x m y m p d

61 h p. P b m m

62 h p b m u d m. T h

63 w f p p y d g v

64 h g m. I w d u m

65 d h d d g m p p p j

66 h b h d h d u, m y

67 , w m k v. S f w

68 p b m m u b d h

69 g b. A h u g h d h d u m y

70 b f x d, u b u d

71 m m p d f f u p j

72 . T h d v p m p d y m. C

73 d y h g ; h u, p

74 j q u b u m y h v d. T h

75 v m v h d w

76 m f u, p q u, d

77 d d v. P p

78 f w d v p m m

79 d m j u f k. A d d y, h

80 h d f h b u

81 f w k. T h f : C m m u

82 b u k f h m d f f u, y m

83 p. P p d w k b u p

84 p b m. E f f v k p g y

85 u w h p p w g k b u

86 k - h g, u v v

87 m. S f w z f f h u y

88 d f f y f m. I d p d

89 m g f w m x p

90 y z. W h x m y

91 g f w y m, h d g m p x y

92 h u g h d m p b m g y d

93 f f u b u v d m p d m m

94 y b u m g b. S f w h u

95 f f f w k. A h u

96 u u h w h w h h f u

97 b m d u z d d h h

98 h u f f m b p

99 d. I d v p m m

100 u u, h p w h h u

101 d h, d h w h w

102 h h h h u m u u d v p h

103 f w h u. I d f

104 p d p z f k b

105 j m g d p j f f

106 f u h w h h m m p

107 h p j. A p p p k

108 m g d u v p

109 j k h u g p j

110 m p. P j h f h

111 , p u k m g

112 f u h d u p j

113 . P j u g f w k m g

114 m h v m p d b h d u ;

115 h y x p f w u p,

116 h y h v d f d k b f

117 h y b m p b m. R k m g

118 m d y m v d

119 g p j h u d u h g h

120 v f k. P p g d d

121 k m f f w p j

122 y d m u m g ; h w v,

123 h g u h b f h

124 u m y u w g h h v

125 v d. S f w k m g m x p

126 g h h d w h

127 k g f w p v v m u

128 y g g b w h m p d

129 h d m h b

130 u d w h p p k m g m

131 h q u g d.

132 U - 3 : Sfw Pj M d Sfw Pj Pg Suu f h U Objv Idu Sfw Mum Sz-d M Fu-d M Pj Pg Objv Sfw Sp Ru Lk Hum Ru, Rub Ru Ad Evm Ru. Summy Sf Am Qu Rf Objv Pg f h fw pj ud p d h C, Shdu d Quy f fw ym d dvpm p. I h hp w w k vy f u d wh Sfw Mum, Sfw Pj Pg d Idf f vb Ru. Idu Mum b gzd w wy: d d d mu. D mu f h pdu ud d ff ppd. I ud f d (LOC) pdud, xu pd, mmy z, d df pd v p-pfd pd f m. Id mu f h pdu ud quy, fuy, mpxy, ffy, by, mby,. Th d ff qud budg fw d h umb f f d pdud vy y mu, bu, h quy d fuy f fw ffy mby m dffu d b mud y dy. Sfw Mum Sz-Od M Sz-d fw m dvd by mzg quy d pduvy mu by dg h z f h fw pdu. If fw dvpm gz m d h fm f b h z-d mu, gz hv b hw Fgu 5.1. Th b h fw dvpm pj h h b mpd v h p fw y d pdg mu f h pj. A p h b y (b 5.1) f pj Aph: 11,999 f d w dvpd wh 23 p-mh f ff f $160,000. I hud b fd h h ff d dd h b p fw gg v uh y, dg, d, d, ju dg.

133 Tb : Sz Od M Pj LOC Eff $(000) Pp. d. E Df Pp Aph 11, B 26, Gmm... 20, R fm f pj Aph d h 360 pg f dum w dvpd, 120 w dd bf h fw w d, d 24 df w ud f h um wh h f y f p. Th pp wkd h dvpm f fw f h fd pj. I d dvp m h b pd wh m m fm h pj, w h f d u mz vu. Fm h b d d h b, f mp z-d m b dvpd f h pj: 7. E p KLOC (hud f d). 8. Df p KLOC. 9. $ p LOC. 10. Pg f dum p KLOC. I dd, h g m b mpud: 6. E p p-mh. 7. LOC p p-mh. 8. $ p pg f dum. Fu-Od M Th yp f m u mu f h fuy dvd by h pp mz vu. A fuy b mud dy, mu b dvd dy ug h d mu. Fu-d m w f ppd mu d h Fu P. Fu p dvd ug mp hp bd ub (d) mu f fw fm dm d m f fw mpxy. Fu p mpud by mpg h gv b. (b. 5.2) Fv fm dm h dmd d u pvdd h ppp um f h b. Ifm dm vu dfd h fwg m: 7. Numb f u pu: Eh u pu h pvd d pp d d h fw ud. Ipu hud b dguhd fm qu, whh ud py. 8. Numb f u upu: Eh u upu h pvd pp- d fm h u ud. Oupu f p d, mg,. 9. Numb f u qu: A quy dfd - pu h u h g f m mmd fw p h fm f - upu. Eh d quy ud. 10. Numb f f: Eh g m f ud. 11. Numb f x f: A mh-db f (.g., d f g md) h ud m fm h ym ud. O h d hv b d, mpxy vu d wh h u. Ogz h u fu p mhd dvp f dmg whh pu y mp, vg, mpx.

134 Tb : Cmpug fu p Wghg f Mum pm Cu Smp Avg Cmpx Numb f u pu x = Numb f u upu x = Numb f u qu x = Numb f f x = Numb f x f x = Cu T mpu fu p (FP), h fwg hp ud: FP = u x [ um [F]] Wh u h um f FP bd fm h bv b. Th F ( = 1 14) mpxy djum vu bd p h qu k, w) D h ym qu b bkup d vy? x) A d mmu qud? y) A h dbud pg fu? z) I pfm? )W h ym u xg, hvy uzd p vm? bb)d h ym qu - d y? ) D h - d y qu h pu b bu v mup p? dd)a h m f updd -? )A h pu, upu, f, qu mpx? ff) I h pg mpx? gg)i h d dgd b -ub? 12. A v d udd h dg? 7. I h ym dgd f mup dff gz? 8. I h pp dgd f hg d f u by h u? Eh f h qu wd ug h g fm 0 ( mp ppb) 5 (buy ). Th vu Equ d h wghg f h ppd fm dm u dmd mpy. O fu p hv b ud, hy ud m gu SLOC, wy mz mu f fw pduvy, quy, d h bu: 9. E d df p Fu P. 10. C p Fu P. 11. Pg f dum p Fu P. 12. Fu P p p-mh.

135 Pj Pg Objv F ufu pj pp mgm d h kd ff. Lk f y u pj f. Pp mgm d hkp qud f ffv mg f h pj. Cg v dvpm, ug quy, fyg h d f h d p md- qu fu mgm f h pj. Pduvy d quy d fw dg b mphd whu dqu pj pg. A pj p mu b dvpd h bgg f pj. I mu b md dug h pj d mdfd, f y. Umy, pj p vh d f p h b h pj mg y u f pj mgm v. I pvd dmp f ufu fw pj. Dug Pg, v h mgm d pfm pd, wh dug Pj C, h p xud d updd. Whu pp p, mg/g v h pj pb. Th m g f pg k h fuu, dfy h v h d b d mp h pj ufuy d p h hdug d u f h v. Sfw Sp Th vy f vy fw pj pg h dm f fw p. Fu w pfm d fw dug ym gg hud b d bh pj p h uddb h h w mgm v. A m f fw p mu b budd. Th Sfw p db h d d b pd, fu, f, by, pfm d. Fu wh dbd h m f p vud d fd pvd m d fm p h bgg f m. Sm dg f dmp ufu bu d hdu m fuy d. C dfy m pd h fw by x hdw, vb mmy, h xg ym. Pj mgm p f fw dvpm. A g fw dvpm pj vv my pp wkg gh f g pd. T m h, quy, d hdu bjv, u hv b ppy d h vy f h pj, d pg f dff v h b md d v k, f dd. F g pj, pp mgm p f u. Th Mgm P mp pf v h d b d by h Pj Mgm u w d hgh quy bjv. Th Mgm P b gupd h m g: Pg Mg & C Tm Ay Mgm P M Vu Dvpm P Mgm C Tm Fgu Rhp bw dvpm p d mgm p Pj mgm bg wh pg. Th g f h ph dvp p f fw dvpm, fwg whh h bjv f h pj b m ufuy d ffy. Pp pg f ufu pj. Th pj p pvd h fudm b f pj mgm. A fw p uuy pdud bf h dvpm vy bg d updd

136 dvpm pd d d bu pg f h pj bm vb. Dug pg, h mj v m, hdu d m dm, ffg, quy p, d 'g d mg p'. I d hdu m, h d m dd f ufuy mpg h pj md. I dd, d hdu f h dff v f h dvpm p b ud md, h dvpm p y pf h v, h d m qum f hm. A p pvd mhd f hdg hg d mhd f mg pj. Pj pg udubdy h g m mp mgm vy, d upu f h fm h b f mg d. Th b mp b ud dvd fm IEEE Sdd , IEEE Sdd f Sfw Pj Mgm P. Th SPMP bg wh v pg h h v d fm. Eh h dp f h fm d wh. Th dum pdud h ph h Sfw Pj Mgm P (SPMP), whh db h fwg 5. C Em; 6. Shdu Em; 7. P/Sff/Mpw P; 8. Sfw Quy Au P; 9. Cfgu Mgm P; 10. Rk Mgm P; d 11. Mg P,. Ru Th d fw pg k m f h u qud mph h fw dvpm ff. Fgu ud pymd hw h Sfw Dvpm Ru. Hum Ru (Pp) Rub fw Ru Evm Ru Fgu Sfw Pj Ru I h Dvpm Evm, h hdw d fw, h bm f h u pymd d pvd h fud f fuu upp h fw dvpm ff. Rub Sfw Cmp by fw budg bk whh dmy du dvpm d dvy. Th Rub Sfw Cmp d h mdd f h Pymd.

137 A h p f h pymd h pmy u Hum (Pp). Eh u pfd wh fu h: 9. Dp f h u, 10. A m f vby, 11. Tm wh h u w b qud; d 12. Du f m h u w b ppd. Th w h b vwd m wdw. 3) Hum Ru Th p bg by vug p d g h k qud mp dvpm. Bh gz p (.g., mg, fw g) d py (.g., mmu, db, /v) pfd. F m pj ( p p y ), g dvdu my pfm fw gg k, ug wh p p h qum f h pj. Th umb f pp qud f fw pj b dmd y f m f dvpm ff (.g., p p mh) md. 4) Rub Sfw Ru Ruby h p f h Cmp-bd fw gg (CBSE), whh m h d u f fw budg bk. Suh budg bk, f d mp, mu b gd f y f, ddzd f y pp, d vdd f y g. Adg B, fwg fu fw u g hud b dd pg pd: 4) Off-h-hf mp: Exg fw h b qud fm hd py h h b dvpd y f p pj. COTS (mm ff-h-hf) mp puhd fm hd py, dy f u h u pj, d hv b fuy vdd. 5) Fu-xp mp: Exg pf, dg, d, d dvpd f p pj h m h fw b bu f h u pj. Mmb f h u fw m hv hd fu xp h pp pd by h mp. Thf, mdf qud f fu-xp mp w b f vy w-k. (x) P-xp mp: Exg pf, dg, d, d dvpd f p pj h d h fw b bu f h u pj bu w qu ub mdf. Mmb f h u fw m hv y md xp h pp pd by h mp. Thf, mdf qud f p-xp mp hv f dg f k. (x) Nw mp: Sfw mp h mu b bu by h fw m pfy f h d f h u pj. Th fwg gud hud b dd by h fw p wh ub mp pfd u: (E) If ff-h-hf mp m pj qum, qu hm. Th f qu d g f ff-h-hf mp w m wy b h h dvp quv fw. Rk vy w. (F) If fu-xp mp vb, h k d wh mdf d g gy pb. Th pj p hud f h u f h mp. d. If p-xp mp vb, h u f h u pj mu b yzd. If xv mdf qud bf h mp b ppy gd wh h

138 m f h fw, pd fuy k hgh. Th mdfy p-xp mp mm b g h h dvp w mp. Iy, ub fw mp f gd dug pg, y bm pmu dug h dvpm ph f h fw p. I b pfy fw u qum y. I h wy h vu f h v b dud d my qu u. 6. Evm Ru Th vm h upp h fw pj, f d h fw gg vm (SEE), p hdw d fw. Hdw pvd pfm h upp h (fw) qud pdu h wk pdu h um f gd fw gg p. Bu m fw gz hv mup u h qu h SEE, pj p mu pb h m wdw qud f hdw d fw d vfy h h u w b vb. Sfw Szg Whu fw, mpu hdw u. Sfw dvpm puh f fw h mj h f h mpug budg f y gz. S, fw ym vy mp d vub f y dvp bu u. Sg fw h my bu whh mu, k, 3. Th Sz (L f Cd); 4. Th C f Dvpm; 5. Th f M; 6. Th m f dvpm ( p-mh); 7. Th z f mmy qud ( by); d. F h mum f bv f, qu bvu h dff bv f h m mpu pgm my g dff u. F xmp, mu h f d f mpu pgm, bv my u h p h pgm udg bk d mm; wh h bv my u bk d mm pp h pgm. S, dff p g dff u. H, dd d p df d gud f h f d m qud h dff p my g d u f h m pgm.fm m--m dff m hv b dvpd qufy vu bu f fw. H, w gupd f hm w bd g 5. Pdu M A d, h fw m, k Sz, whh b dvd fm h fw f, d Pdu M. 6. P M A h mum f fw pdu whh dpd up h dvpm vm d P M. Cmpu Pgm w dvpd f vg dff pbm d hvg dff bjv. S, hy w dff gug. Sm pgm f gd quy bu hy hv gd dum d w wh h u f d hqu f Sfw Egg. Wh h hvg pg, mm d dum. Dp h, hv z d mm fu whh pgm h. Mum f z vy mp m f fw duy d h m h k b I vy mp d y ud wh h pgm mpd. C d ff m bd h z m py mp fw dvpm pj. d Mmy qum b ddd h b f z mum. Sfw pduvy b pdd by h m f z.

139 Th fw z dpd up h fwg f 1. Th dg whh h z md, 2. Th by h m ff, m d, d 3. Ny f by f h qum d h vm whh pj bu. Sm f h z mu. Su L f Cd (LOC bd m) b. Tk Cu. Fu P M (FP bd m) ). Su L f Cd (LOC bd m) SLOC fw m ud mu h mu f d pgm. SLOC ypy ud m h mu f ff h w b qud dvp pgm w qufy pduvy ff h fw pdud. O f h pbm wh ug SLOC h b h k f ddzd dû. Phy SLOC mu (ug phy dg k pg) v h fmg d y v f h gug ud dvp h d. Lg SLOC mu h umb f m. Lg SLOC dû d pu mpu gug. Lg SLOC v fmg d y v, bu v pgmmg gug d hgy. SLOC mu f d whu dû, whh u pbm bu h SLOC p u f ukw u. Addy, SLOC h hd-gd hud b py dûd fm u-gd SLOC, d w SLOC mu b pd fm ud SLOC. Dp h pbm, SLOC u hv b d w u b ufuy ud by my mp, gz, d pj u f fw z. I h wd, w y h h h mp m ug h z f mpu pgm. Th m kg fu f h m p df. Th g gm mg h h SLOC mu hud ud dum d bk bu bk p f dum f h pgm. Th b d ff h ffy d fuy f h pgm. Adg h mu, y xub m hud b udd h u bu y hy upp h fu f h pgm. Th m u b ppu d ufu fw duy bu f mpy. Th SLOC mu gv qu wgh h f d. Bu, f m m f pgm m dffu d d mphd h h. Th h mj dwbk SLOC z mu f g k b vd by gvg m wgh h, whh dffu d d hv m uff. b). Tk Cu Tk Cu mu h u f h dwbk f SLOC z mu. Adg h Tk Cu Cu h b ymb ud d f hmv. Th b ymb d Tk. Ad dg h Hd Thy, mpu pgm dd b f k, whh my b fd h p pd. A p b dfd ymb kywd whh pf k hm,, p ymb, puu mk, v wd (.g. D, READ, WHILE.) d fu m (.g. pf().). A Sfw S m b dfd m f h b ymb. Th b mu 1 = Cu f uqu p. 2 = Cu f uqu pd. N1 = Cu f u f p. N2 = Cu f u f pd.

140 A k whh v h d ud p h d d pd. A pd ud vb, b. I m f h k ud, h z f h pgm b xpd N = N1 + N2 ). Fu P M (FP bd m) I g d mpx fw pdu, z b md b wy hugh g u d Mdu. A Mdu gm f d whh my b mpd py d dpdy. I g d mpx pj pd h umb f mdu h h f d. F xmp, f w qu mdu d um h h mdu hv f d; h h z m f h pdu bu x 100 SLOC. Bu, h m qu u f dvdg pgm mdu. Du h b f fwd u, h m my b ufu. A mdu my f my fu d fu my b dfd gup f xub m whh pfm dfd k. Th umb f SLOC f fu hud b vy g. S, wh w u h umb f fu pgm, w y m h z f h mpu pgm. Fu p mu dvd fuy wy h dpd f h hgy ud dvp h ym. Fu p mpu z by ug fu mp (pu, upu, x f, f, d qu). A ud Fgu gv bw, fu p pj wh w b pvdd by h ym h h hw bg h d pdu w b. Th pph m pjg h f by pg wh pb w hv h h by z. Wh h z f ppd fw pdu pjd fm qum, h pj h k h f p wd mg h d m h w b dd f dvpm. Th pbm f pj mgm, k h f m mgm, fd pb b mg m,, d pfm. Shdu pfm m mp du um pu, d pdu pfm mph. Of h pdu k g du um vw d hdu pfm fu df u f h hdw. Wh w w d w bm w mgd, ug k. Th m by whh fw pj bh uh b hugh h z pj ud m h wk, dvp h hdu, d m h hgg z pj, whh h b p. If h pj fwd, h hugh p pp f p, u f h fm, mgm mp, h b b hd. Tb gv bw, u m dvg d ddvg f SLOC u d fu p. Fu P u f mu Fuy vwd fm h u ppv A u wh w h ym qum, ju fw p

141 Fgu Fu P u ppv Advg d Ddvg f SLOC d Fu P Cu Advg L f Ey Cmpu Ddvg N Iv pmz d Cd Iuv Mup df f wh u f d; ugd d my fy f SLOC u. Gu V dmy bd hgy ud Nu by-pdu f Dffu qum y h pj p Sm gug dffu u umy. Fu Mu ym fm U ppv mu b vb f dd u P u ppv B dfd ug N fm vb y pj u Rvy dpd N uv mg f Thgy M k Fuy Cu mu b d

142 Pbm Bd Em Dug fw pj m h SLOC d FP d ud w wy A m vb z h m f h fw A b m d fm vu p pj d ud mb wh m vb dvp d ff pj. H, SLOC d FP bh dff m hqu bu bh hv umb f h mm. Th pj p dfy h m f fw p d fm h m mp dmp fw pbm fu h h b md dvduy. SLOC FP h md f h fu. Avy, h p my h h mp f zg. B pduvy m k SLOC p P Mh h ppd h ppp m vb d ff f h fu dvd. Fu m mbd pdu v m f h pj. Wh w pj md, hud f b d dm, d h h ppp dm vg f pduvy hud b ud gg h m. S, wy mmb h pj hud b gupd by h pp, m z, mpxy f h pp d h v pm. L dm vg hud h b mpud. Th SLOC d FP m hqu dff h v f d qud f dmp d h g f h pg. Wh SLOC ud h m vb, mp buy d f k db v f d. F FP m, dmp wk dffy. Rh h fug fu, h f h fm dm h- pu, upu, d f, qu, d x f. Th u m h b ud dv FP vu h b d p d d ud g m. Th pj p bg by mg g f vu f h fu fm dm vu. Ug h d, h p m pm d pm z vu f h fu u f h fm dm vu. A mp d f h dg f uy pvdd wh g f vu pfd. A h p xpd vu h b mpud by h pj p. Th xpd vu f h m vb (z):s, b mpud wghd vg f h pm (Sp), m ky (Sm), d pm (Sp) m. F xmp, S = (Sp + 4Sm + Sp) / 6 Gv hv wgh h m ky m d fw b pbby dbu. W um h h vy m pbby h u z u w f ud h pm pm vu. Th h SLOC d FP pduvy d b ppd f h dm f h xpd vu f h m vb. I uggd h y m hqu mu b hkd wh h pph. P Bd Em T b h m h p h w b ud h m mm hqu f mg h pj. I h p bd m hqu, h p dmpd vy m f k d h ff qud mph h k md. P-bd m bg wh dp f fw fu bd fm h pj p d f fw p v mu b pfmd f h fu. O pbm fu d p v ddd, h p m h ff pmh h w b qud mph h fw p vy f h fw fu. Fu d d fw p v my b pd p f b -6.1 gv bw. Th d u h mx f h b. Avg bu p u

143 Cmmmu Rk Ay Cumvu ff h ppd h ff md f h p vy. I vy ky h h bu w vy f h k. S ff hvy vvd y v gy m xpv h ju ff vvd dg k, d g, d y g. Th b gv bw- Tb P Bd Em Avy Pg Egg Cu T Tk Ay Dg Cd T UICF / DGA / DGA / 8.50 CGDF / 6.00 DBM / 5.75 PCF / 4.25 DAM / 5.00 T / %Eff 1% 1% 1% 8% 45% 10% 36% UICF: U If d C F 2DGA: Tw Dm Gm Ay 3DGA: Th Dm Gm Ay DBM: D B Mgm CGDF: Cmpu Gph Dpy F PCF: Pph C Fu DAM: Dg Ay Mdu C d ff f h fu d fw p vy mpud, h p. If p-bd m pfmd dpdy f LOC FP m, w w hv w h m f d ff h my b mpd d d. If bh f m hw b gm, h gd bv h h m b. Ohw, h u f h dmp hqu hw gm; fuh vg d y mu b dud by h m. COCOMO (COuv CO m MOd) A Emp Em Md f Eff Th Cuv C Md (COCOMO) w dvpd by Bhm 1981 d bd udy f 63 pj. I m h ff m f p-mh f h h pj ff. Th ff m ud dvpm, mgm, d upp k. Th m hugh h md wh b m f h dvpm ff fm h m f hud f dvd f u d (KDLOC). Af h p dm f 15 mupyg f fm dff bu f h pj; d h dju h ff m by mupyg h m wh h mupyg f.

144 Adg h COCOMO, Sfw pj gzd h yp 1. Og : Pj whh h gz h db xp d qum. Suh ym uuy dvpd by m m. F xmp, Smp bu ym. 2. Embddd : Th gz h xp. Sym hghy ffd fm h vm k fw, pp hdw. F xmp, R m ym. 3. Smdhd : Th h mb f bh ym. F xmp, dvpg w pg ym d mp bu mgm ym. Th b fu f h h yp f pj hw h gv b- Tb Typ f Pj Og Embddd Smdhd Pj Sz Sm Ay Sz Lg Typ f Pj Idpd Pdu mbddd Idpd vm wh v Dvpm Exv Md Md Exp Evm Exv Nm Cdb Kwdg C Vu = 2.4, b=1.05 = 3.6, b=1.20 = 3.0, b=1.12 Th m whh d m m dmd by qu, ug KDLOC h mum f z. T dm h ff E p-mh, h fwg qu ud - Wh, E = ff p-mh E = * (SIZE) b, b = C, vu dpd h yp f h pj SIZE = KDLOC S, ff fmu f h yp f pj - Og : E = 2.4 * (KDLOC) 1.05 Embddd : E = 3.6 * (KDLOC) 1.20 Smdhd : E = 3.0 * (KDLOC) 1.12 Adg h Imd COCOMO d Dd COCOMO, Bhm ppd ff dff bu whh ud mu d C dv bu. A h f dpd Pdu bu, Cmpu bu, P bu d Pj bu bu. Th C Dv Abu hw bw, Pdu Abu Sfw Rby Sz f pp db Cmpxy Cmpu Abu Pfm Rqum Mmy C Vy f Vu Mh Evm Tu Aud Tm P Abu Ay Cpby Sfw Egg Cpby App Exp Vu Mh Exp Pgmmg Lgug Exp Pj Abu U f Sfw T App f Sfw Egg Mhd Rqud Dvpm Shdu 59

145 Eh f h dv f gv pj d : Vy Lw Hgh Vy Hgh Ex Hgh Th db h pp whh dv pp pj. Vu pdg h f h x g dfd. Th mupyg f f 15 dv mupd g h Eff Adjum F (EAF). Th F Eff Em (E) bd by mupyg h m by h EAF: E = (KDLOC) b *EAF Bhm ppd dd dvpm m (D) bd h pj yp d pj z mh. F dff yp f pj, D mpud ug fmu gv ud F Og Pj : D = 2.5 * (E) 0.38 F Smdhd : D = 2.5 * (E) 0.35 F Embddd : D = 2.5 * (E) 0.32 Ex - Th vu f z KDLOC d dff dv f pj gv bw-sz = 200 KDLOC C dv: Sfw Rby: 1.15 U f Sfw T: 0.91 Pdu Cmpxy: 0.85 Exu Tm C: 1.00 Cu h ff f h yp f pj.. Og, Smdhd, d Embddd ug COCOMO Md. Su Eff Adjum F (EAF) : EAF = 1.15 * 0.91*0.85*1.00 = Eff f h yp f pj : Og Pj E = 3.2 * (200) 1.05 * = 742 p mh Smdhd Pj E = 3.0 * (200) 1.12 * = 1012 p mh Embddd Pj E = 2.8 * (200) 1.2 * = 1437 p mh Rk Mgm Sfw Egg h h d mg dp d d wh h ym v, pdu, d m f hgh quy fw pdu dvd m, mmum. Th gb IT fw duy d b h y pj vu, d wkg fw. Adg uvy p, muh 40% f fw dvpm b p wkg fw. Fuhm, vg y x fw pj w b dvd m d budg, d m g gz y 10% f h pj w m m d budg. 60

146 Gv fgu u m mj u f pj fu. Mg Iu - u f 65 p f fu Ippp pj uu d h f mmu Ippp u (p k d kwdg mx) Ippp m Ippp pg mhd (p hdug d kg) Ippp u buy- Ippp k mgm Th Iu - u f 35 p f fu Ippp fw qum Ippp h dg Ippp dvpm d g Ippp h dum Ippp h upp Ippp h vw (d quy ud) Fgu : Mj u f pj fu Th m fw k mgm m dff hg my dff pp, dg wh m by k w d udd h quv, quv d phph p f wh u k. Th umu df wh u k; ppp df fw: Rk mb f bm v fu d h qu f h v fu ym p, u vm. A k g fm ph ( f ym; f f pm dby) ggb ( ym dmg juy). (Guh, 1994) If xmd h u h h d bw, uuy d up dwm mj u f pj fu. Bu Pg gy Lg (g) P f pyg Pym d y P f um pp Tmg f du Skhd fu Thg Pdu m Dg mpby Pdu m Dg f v Ppy hgy P () Thgy uqu Fgu : Sm h duy-wd fw pj Rgd f z d p, vy pj hd by k. Sfw pj py upb k du h pd f dvpm h fd d pdy hgg vm. By Bhm dfd Tp-10 f mj fw dvpm wh k mu b ddd: 1. Sk hf 2. U hdu d budg 3. Sby f x ff-h-hf fw 4. Rqum mmh 5. U f mmh

147 6. Ahu, pfm, quy 7. Rqum hg 8. Lgy fw 9. Exy pfmd k 10. Sg mpu pb. Adg MMu h ky k ud h fwg- 1. Ifuu m 2. Pum f fuu 3. Mu- fw dvpm 4. Ud dvpm mhdg 5. Rguy dd (f xmp, hh d fy) 6. Idqu gy 7. Dvpm m vvd mup pj h v 8. Cmmu pbm 9. Avby f p. Sfw dvpm vy mpx vy. Th fw pbm h umu m wh xmy mpd hp. Pbm m hp b mudm. Th w f ppy d gv hg m. I w dumd h ddg m pp pj h bhd hdu, my, w mk v. Sfw pbm m ub d hgb. Ahugh d hdu my b fxd, u bu d m mp dffu pj. Th dvpm p dym. Cd y hg; hu, pj qubum y hvd. Th vm v hdw mfu, p qu, d d dv. Pp fw dvpm m d mj u f k. Addy, h h d f h bu fw k. Th f : Cmmu bu k f h m dffu, y mp. Pp d w k bu p pbm. Effv k pg y u wh pp wg k bu k -hg, uv vm. Sfw z ff h uy d ffy f m. Idpd mg fw m xpy z. Wh xmy g fw ym, hdg mpxy hugh dmp bm gy dffu bu v dmpd m my b umgb. Sfw hu ff fw k. Ahu uu h wh whh fu b mduzd d h hh u f fm b pd. I dvpm m uu, hp wh h u d h, d h wh whh h hum uu dvp h fw hu. Idf d pz f k b pj mg d pj ff fu h wh h m mp h pj. Appp k mg du v pj k hu g pj mp. Pj h fh, pu k mg fuh du pj. Pj ug fw k mgm hv m pdb hdu; hy xp fw up, hy hv dfd k bf hy bm pbm. Rk mgm d y m vdg pj h ud u hgh v f k. Ppg dd k m f fw pj y d m umg; hwv, h g u h bf h u my uwgh h vvd. Sfw k mgm xp g h h d wh kg fw pvv mu y ggb wh mpd h dm h b ud wh pp k mgm hqu gd.

148 Summy C d Shdu m h fudm qum h pj mgm. A fw pj m h m kwdgb m h b md pu p m gdg ff,, hdu, d k. A mp m v df, u, gud u, d ump. Th Sfw Dmp uuy dfd bkg up ym mp p. Th w m fw dmp hqu- 1). Obj Od Pgmmg d 2). Cmp-bd Dvpm (CBD) Sfw Cmpy. Th fw dmp hqu ud m h z, d ff by h m dff wy ). Sfw Szg; b). Pbm bd m d ). P- bd m. SLOC fw m ud mu h mu f d pgm. SLOC ud m h mu f ff h w b qud dvp pgm w qufy pduvy ff h fw pdud. Tk Cu mu h u f h dwbk f SLOC z mu. Fu p mu dvd fuy wy h dpd f h hgy ud dvp h ym. Fu p mpu z by ug fu mp (pu, upu, x f, f, d qu). Th Cuv C Md (COCOMO) w dvpd by Bhm I m h ff m f p-mh f h h pj ff. Th ff m ud dvpm, mgm, d upp k. Sf Am Qu 1. Du h ufu f Sfw Dmp. 2. Wh h dmp hqu? Du pbm bd m d p bd m bf. 3. Exp h SLOC mhd f fw z mum. 4. Gv yu vw, whh SLOC bd m ffv mhd. 5. Wh COCOMO? Db h vu md f COCOMO m md gv xmp f pp fg h. Rf Pm R.S., Sfw Egg: A P Apph, (Ffh Ed), MGw-H, Kw Bgh, Sfw Egg, (F Ed), Gu Pub, J Pkj, A Igd Apph Sfw Egg, (Sd Ed), N Pubhg Hu, Pu S. d Sgh G., Sfw Egg V. 1, (Fuh Ed), Gu Pub, Smmv I., Sfw Egg, (Sxh Ed), P Edu, Shh S.R., Sfw Egg, (Svh Ed), T MGw-H, Nw Dh, M R., Fudm f Sfw Egg, (Sxh Ed), P-H f Id, G N.S., Sfw Egg: Sfw Rby, Tg d Quy Au, Kh Bk Pubhg C (P) Ld, Nw Dh, 2002 Sbhw S., Sfw Egg: Pp, T d Thqu, (Sd Ed), Umh Pub, Dh, 2005.

149 Suu f h U Objv Idu Dg p d pp U - 4 : Sfw Dg Dg Spf Md Dg Gud Dg Pp Fudm Sfw Dg Cp T ud f dg d y Mduy Ch Cupg Fu Idpd Fu-d dg Objd dg Fu-d v. Obj-d dg pph R Tm Dg Dg p f m ym U If Dg U If Dg Iu U If Dg Pp U If Dg P U Ay U If Pypg If Evu. Summy Sf Am Qu Rf Objv Af mpg h u yu w Dg p d pp, dg Mdu dg,obj d dg, m dg If dg. Idu A fw dg mgfu gg p f m fw pdu h b bu. A dg b d h um qum d b d f

150 quy g pdfd. I h fw gg x, dg fu fu mj f : d, hu, f d mp. Dg p d pp Th dg p vy mp. Fm p dp, bu, wud mp bud hu whu ppvd bup hby kg h uu gy d um f. I h m m, h pph budg fw pdu dff. Th mph dg quy; h ph pvd u wh p f fw h b d f quy. Fuhm, h h y ph whh h um qum b uy d fhd fw pdu ym. A uh, fw dg v h fud f fw gg p h fwd gd f whh p md bg mpyd. Whu pp dg w k budg ub ym h w f wh m hg md, h my b dffu ; wh quy b d u h fw p, php wh dd pphg d muh p h dy b vd h pdu. Dug h dg p h fw pf fmd dg md h db h d f h d uu, ym hu, f, d mp. Eh dg pdu vwd f quy bf mvg h x ph f fw dvpm. A h d f h dg p dg pf dum pdud. Th dum mpd f h dg md h db h d, hu, f d mp. A h d d hu v h mph pd h p hy h pp b bu. Wh h f v, hum gm f d h dg pph mpyd. Ly, h mp v h dg d wh pgmmg pph whh d ffv d d pdu dg. Dg Spf Md D dg d by fmg h y fm md (d dy d ERD) d uu qud mpm h fw. P f h d dg my u ju wh h dg f fw hu. M dd d dg u h fw mp dgd. Ahu dg - df h hp mg h mj uu m f h fw, h dg p h b ud hv h qum h hv b dfd f h ym, d h h ff h wy whh h hu p b ppd. I dvd fm h ym pf, h y md, d h ubym dfd h y md (DFD). If dg - db hw h fw m mmu wh h h, wh h ym, d wh hum u; h d fw d fw dgm pvd muh f h y fm qud. Cmp-v dg - d by fmg h uu m dfd by h fw hu pdu dp f fw mp ug fm bd fm h p pf (PSPEC), pf (CSPEC), d dgm (STD). Th md vy fm h dg md, whh pd dgmmy pymd uu wh d dg h b d mp v dg h p. N h h v pdu w dum, whh vy fm h dg pf dum, g wh h

151 gud f g dvdu mdu d h g f h pkg. Aghm dp d h v fm my b udd ppdx. Dg Gud I d vu h quy f dg (p) h f gd dg hud b bhd. Suh dg hud: Exhb gd hu uu B mdu C d p f d, hu, f, d mp (mdu) Ld d uu h ppp f h bj b mpmd d b dw fm gzb dg p Ld mp h xhb dpd fu h Ld f h du h mpxy f bw mdu d wh h x vm b dvd ug pub mhd h dv by fm bd dug fw qum y Th hvd by h. Th fw dg p ug gd dg hugh h pp f fudm dg pp, ym mhdgy d hugh vw. Dg Pp Sfw dg b vwd bh p d md. Th dg p qu f p h b h dg db p f h fw b bu. Hwv, my kbk; f mp d ufu dg, h dg mu u v k, p xp, f wh mk gd fw, d hv mmm quy. Th dg md quv h h p f hu. I bg by pg h y f h y b bu (.g. 3D dg f h hu), d wy f h y pvd gud f ug h d (.g. h pumbg yu). Smy h dg md h d f fw pvd vy f vw f h mpu fw. dpd fm bk by R Pm. Th f pp whh h b bhd d h fw g vgg h dg p : 1. Thdgphudufffmuv Agddghuddv pph. Judgg h bd h qum f h pbm, h u vb d h jb d y h. 2. Thdghudb b h y md bu g m f h dg md f mup qum, y hv m f kg hw h qum hv b fd by h md 3. Th dghud v hwh Symud ug fdgp, my f whh my hv ky b ud bf. Th p hud wy b h v v. Tm h d u md! Dg m hud b vd pg uy w d d gg h p h dy x. 4. Thdghudmmudbwhfwdhpbmx h wd Th, h uu f h fw dg hud (whv pb) mm h uu f h pbm dm. 5. Thdghudxhbufmydg dgufmf pph p dvpd h wh hg. Ru f y d fm hud b dfd f dg m bf dg wk bg. A dg gd f k

152 dfg f bw dg mp. 6. Th dg hud b uud dgd gy,v wh bd d,v, pg d ud W-dgd fw hud v bmb. I hud b dgd mmd uuu um, d f mu m pg, d gfu m. 7. Th dg hud b vwd mmz pu (m) h mm h dy fu mu d wh h dg vwd, mg h f f h. Th dg m hud u h mj pu m f h dg hv b ddd bf wyg bu h yx f h dg md. 8. Dg dg, dg dg Ev wh dd dg d f pgm mp, h v f b f h dg md hgh h u d. Th y dg d md f h dg v dd h m mpm d h b h pdu dg b dd. 9. Th dg hud b uud mmd hg 10. Th dg hud b d f quy bg d Wh h dg pp ppy ppd, h dg xhb bh x d quy f. Ex quy f h f h dy b bvd by h u, (.g. pd, by,, uby). I quy f h h quy (whh mp h fw g) m h quy f h dg f. T hv quy f h dg mu udd b dg p. Fudm Sfw Dg Cp A f fudm fw dg p h vvd v h p fu dd, h pvdg h fw dg wh fud fm whh m phd dg mhd b ppd. Eh p hp h fw g w h fwg qu: 1. Wh b ud p fw dvdu mp? 2. Hw fu d uu d pd fm pu p f fw? 3. A h ufm h df h h quy f fw dg? Th fudm dg p : Ab - w dg fu vg pbm whu bg d bu v w v d (pdu b - md qu f v, d b - md f d bj) Rfm - p f b wh h dg pvd uvy m d f h dg mp Mduy - h dg whh fw b udd by xmg mp dpdy f h Sfw hu - v uu f h fw mp d h wy whh h uu pvd pu gy f ym C hhy pgm uu - p h mdu gz d mp hhy, bu d p h pdu p f h fw (.g. v qu) Suu pg - hz pg df h p (pu, d fm, d upu); v pg (fg) dbu p-dw m ( d p v mdu d pg wk h w v mdu). D uu - p f h g hp mg dvdu d m (qu muh ghm dg) Sfw pdu - p pf f pg (v qu, d p, pv p, d gz/uu) Ifm hdg - fm (d d pdu) d wh

153 mdu b mdu h hv d f uh fm T ud f dg d y T dv ym dg u qum, hf, y h h f h p d h ky mp h ym dvpm f y. T yz h u ym d dg h qud ym, fw g u m bu-p g p f ym dg. Th bup h u p f h y d by h fw g d d f uud y. Sm f hm fw : D Fw Dgm (DFD) D Dy D T Suud Egh D Tb Mduy Th p f mduy mpu fw h b dvd f bu fv dd. I, h fw dvdd py md d ddb mp d mdu h gd fy pbm qum. A d y gp g pgm mpd f g mdu; h umb f vb, ph d h mpxy wud mk uddg vuy mpb. Cquy mdu pph w w f h fw b uy mgb. N hwv h ubdvd fw dfy mk h ff qud udd dvp ggb. Th bu h umb f mdu (ug h ff dvp hm d), h ff () f d wh gg h mdu. Ch M h d g g h gd fw dg mp dmp f h pbm mdu, d h gm f h mdu hhy. Th pmy h f mdu dmp hgh h d w upg. Ch mu f fu gh f mdu. A mdu hvg hgh h d w upg d b fuy dpd f h mdu. By h m fu dpd, w m h hv mdu pfm g k fu. A fuy dpd mdu h mm wh h mdu. Cf f h Th dff f h h mdu my p dpd fg. Fg : Cf f h Cd h: A mdu d hv d h, f pfm f k h h h vy y, f. I h, h mdu dm f fu. I ky h h fu hv b pu h mdu u f pu d whu y hugh dg. F xmp, pg ym (TPS), h g-pu, p-, d ummz-mmb fu gupd mdu. Th gupg d hv y v h uu f h pbm. Lg h: A mdu d b gy hv, f m f h mdu pfm m p,.g. hdg, d pu, d upu,. A xmp f g h h wh f p fu gg dff upu p gd g mdu.

154 Tmp h: Wh mdu fu h d by h f h h fu mu b xud h m m p, h mdu d xhb mp h. Th f fu pb f z, up, hudw f m p,. xhb mp h. Pdu h: A mdu d p pdu h, f h f fu f h mdu p f pdu (ghm) whh qu f p hv b d u f hvg bjv,.g. h ghm f ddg mg. Cmmu h: A mdu d hv mmu h, f fu f h mdu f upd h m d uu,.g. h f fu dfd y k. Squ h: A mdu d p qu h, f h m f mdu fm h p f qu, wh h upu fm m f h qu pu h x. F xmp, TPS, h g-pu, vd-pu, -pu fu gupd mdu. Fu h: Fu h d x, f dff m f mdu p hv g fu. F xmp, mdu g h fu qud mg mpy py- xhb fu h. Supp mdu xhb fu h d w kd db wh h mdu d, h w wud b b db ug g. Cupg Cupg bw w mdu mu f h dg f dpd bw h w mdu. A mdu hvg hgh h d w upg d b fuy dpd f h mdu. If w mdu hg g mu f d, h hy hghy dpd. Th dg f upg bw w mdu dpd h f mpxy. Th f mpxy by dmd by h umb f yp f pm h hgd wh vkg h fu f h mdu. Cf f Cupg Ev f h hqu py d quvy m h upg bw w mdu, f f h dff yp f upg w hp quvy mg h dg f upg bw w mdu. Fv yp f upg u bw y w mdu. Th hw fg Fg. Cf f upg D upg: Tw mdu d upd, f hy mmu hugh pm. A xmp my d m pd pm bw w mdu,.g. g, f, h,. Th d m hud b pbm d d ud f h pup. Smp upg: Tw mdu mp upd, f hy mmu ug mp d m uh d PASCAL uu C. C upg: C upg x bw w mdu, f d fm mdu ud d h d f u xu h. A xmp f upg fg mdu d d h mdu. Cmm upg: Tw mdu mm upd, f hy h d hugh m gb d m. C upg: C upg x bw w mdu, f hy h d,.g. bh fm mdu h mdu.

155 Fu dpd A mdu hvg hgh h d w upg d b fuy dpd f h mdu. By h m fu dpd, w m h hv mdu pfm g k fu. A fuy dpd mdu h mm wh h mdu. Nd f fu dpd Fu dpd ky y gd dg du h fwg : E : Fu dpd du ppg. Th bhd h h f mdu fuy dpd, dg f wh h h mdu. Thf, y xg mdu wud dy ff h h mdu. Sp f u: Ru f mdu bm pb. Bu h mdu d m w-dfd d p fu, d h f h mdu wh h h mdu mp d mm. Thf, hv mdu b y k u d ud dff pgm. Uddby: Cmpxy f h dg dud, bu dff mdu b udd mdu m dpd f h h. Fu-d dg Th fwg h fu f yp fu-d dg pph: 1. A ym vwd mhg h pfm f fu. Sg h hgh-v vw f h ym, h fu uvy fd m dd fu. F xmp, d fu -w-by-mmb whh y h d f w mmb, g uqu mmbhp umb hm, d p b wd h mmbhp hg. Eh f h ub-fu my b p m dd ubfu d. 2. Th ym zd d hd mg dff fu,.g. d uh mmb-d vb f f d updg v fu. Obj-d dg I h bj-d dg pph, h ym vwd f bj (.. ). Th dzd mg h bj d h bj mg w fm. F xmp, Lby Aum Sfw, h by mmb my b p bj wh w d d fu p h d. I f, h fu dfd f bj f hg d f h bj. Obj hv h w d whh df h. Sm bj u. I h wd, h bj mmb f m. C my h fu fm up. Cpuy, bj mmu by mg pg. Fu-d v. bj-d dg pph Th fwg m f h mp dff bw fu-d d bj-d dg. Uk fu-d dg mhd, OOD, h b b wd fu uh, dpy, k,, bu -wd uh mpy, pu, mh, d ym,. F xmp OOD, mpy py- fw dvpd by dgg fu uh upd-mpyd, g-mpy-dd,. bu by dgg bj uh mpy, dpm,. Gdy Bh um up h dff dfy vb f yu f pdu dg d u f yu f bj-d dg I OOD, fm pd zd hd mmy bu dbud mg h bj f h ym. F xmp, wh dvpg mpy py- ym, h mpy d uh h m f h mpy, h d umb, b,.

156 uuy mpmd gb d d pgmmg ym; wh bj-d ym h d dbud mg dff mpy bj f h ym. Obj mmu by mg pg. Thf, bj my dv h fm f h bj by gg. Of u, mwh h h wd fu mu b mpmd. I OOD, h fu uuy d wh pf -wd (bj); hy dy y p f h ym fm. Fu-d hqu uh SA/SD gup fu gh f, gup, hy u hgh-v fu. O h h hd, bj-d hqu gup fu gh h b f h d hy p. I y bj-d dg b mpmd by ug bj-d gug y. Hwv, bj-d gug uh C++ upp h df f h b mhm f, h, bj, mhd,. d upp ky bj-d p h w hv ju dud. Thu, bj-d gug f h mpm f OOD. Hwv, OOD w b mpmd ug v pdu gug hugh my qu m ff mpm OOD ug pdu gug mpd h ff qud f mpmg h m dg ug bj-d gug. Ev hugh bj-d d fu-d pph mkby dff pph fw dg, y hy d p h h bu mpm h h m. F xmp, uuy pp h p-dw fu-d hqu dg h mhd f, h dfd. I h, hugh uwdy h ym pp hv b dvpd bj-d fh, bu d h h my b m hhy f fu dgd p-dw m. R Tm Dg R m mbddd ym dff fm h yp f fw ym. Thy hv fug h u pdud by h ym d h m whh h u pdud. A f m ym ym wh p dgdd f u pdud dg h pfd mg qum. A hd m ym ym wh p f h u pdud dg m hdu. Bu f h d pd mg dmd md by dff mu/p, h ym hu mu w f f whg bw muu hd. Tmg dmd f dff mu dff mp qu p uuy dqu. R-m ym hf uuy dgd pg p wh -m xuv g h p. Dgg bh h hdw d h fw d wh ym. P fu h hdw fw. Dg d hud b md h b -fu ym qum. Hdw dv b pfm bu py g dvpm d p f hg. Dg p f m ym Idfy h mu b pd d h qud p h mu. F h muu d p, dfy h mg. Aggg h muu d p pg u p. A p my b d wh h f muu d p. Dg ghm p h f muu d p. Th mu m h gv mg qum. Dg hdug ym whh w u h p d m m h dd. Ig ug -m pg ym. 93

157 U If Dg U f dg p f h v fw dg p. If fw ym hv fu p, h u f hud b dgd mh h k, xp d xp f pd u. Gd u f dg f ym dpdby. My -d u ud by h f h u f d d h pb f u d h wkg vm. A py dgd u f m h u w pbby b ub m f h ym fu, w mk mk d w f h h ym hd h h hp hm hvg whv hy ug h ym f. Wh mkg u f dg d, yu hud k u h phy d m pb f h pp wh u fw. I d hv p du hum u d h bu mp f h yu hud d : Pp hv md h-m mmy-w uy mmb bu v m f fm (M, 1957). Thf, f yu p u wh muh fm h m m, hy my b b k. W mk mk, py wh w hv hd muh fm ud. Wh ym g wg d u wg mg d m, h f pu m u, hu g h h h hy w mk p. W hv dv g f phy pb. Sm pp d h b h h, m pp -bd, d m b h h phy mpu. Yu hud dg f yu w pb d um h h u w b b p. U If Dg Iu Bf gg du h p f u f dg, I du m g dg u h hv b dd by UI dg. Ey, h dg f u f mpu fd wh w ky qu: 1. Hw hud h u wh h mpu ym? 2. Hw hud fm fm h mpu ym b pd h u? A h u f mu g u d fm p. Th b dffu bu h dg h fd mpm bw h m ppp y f d p f h pp, h bkgud d xp f h ym u, d h qupm h vb. U U m ug mmd d d d h mpu ym. O y mpu, h y wy d h w hugh mmd- f, d ppup gug w ud mmu wh h mh. Hwv, h w gd xp u d umb f pph hv w vvd h u. D mpu -Th u dy wh bj h. D mpu uuy vv pg dv h d h bj b mpud d h, whh pf wh hud b d wh h bj. F xmp, d f, yu my k pg h f d dg h. Mu -Th u mmd fm f pb ( mu). Th u my h bj by d mpu, d h mmd p h bj. I h pph, d f, yu wud h f h h d mmd. Cmmd gug-th u u p mmd d d pm u h ym wh d. T d f, yu wud yp d mmd wh h fm pm. 94

158 U If dg pp U fmy : Th f hud u m d p dw fm h xp f h pp wh mk m u f h ym. Cy : Th f hud b. wy h, whv pb, mpb p hud b vd h m wy. Mm up : U hud v b upd by h bhvu f ym. Rvby : Th f hud ud mhm w u v fm. U gud : Th f hud pvd mgfu fdbk wh u d pvd x-v u hp f. U dvy : Th f hud pvd ppp f f dff yp f ym u. W hv dff pf. Sm pp k wk wh pu, h wh x. D mpu u f m pp, bu h pf y f h bd ug mmd h ym. Th g pp ppb u f dg d hud my b d m dd dg gud f pf gz yp f ym. Th pp f u fmy ugg h u hud b fd dp f bu v mpm. Th f hud u m h fm h u, d h bj mpud by h ym hud b dy d h u wkg vm. F xmp, f ym dgd f u by ff, h bj mpud hud b f, fgh ph, b, d. Ad p mgh b du. f pd, dju hdg d hg hgh. Th udyg mpm f h f m f f d d uu hud b hdd fm h d u. Th pp f u f y m h ym mmd d mu hud hv h m fm, pm hud b pd mmd h m wy, d mmd puu hud b m. C f du u g m. Kwdg d mmd pp ; hf ppb h p f h ym d pp. If y pp mp. A f pby mmd wh m mg dff pp hud b xpd h m wy. E f ud wh h m kybd mmd, uh C-b m dff hg dff ym. F xmp, h wd p h I my u, Cb m mbd x, bu h gph pgm h I u dw dgm, Cb m mv h d bj bhd h bj. I mk mk wh ug hm gh d mm y mbd x dgm ug h ky mb. Th pp f mm up ppp bu pp g vy d wh ym bhv uxpd wy. A ym ud, u bud m md f hw h ym wk. If x u pu yp f hg, b xp h h m dff x w u mpb hg. If mhg mpy dff hpp, h u bh upd d fud. If dg hud hf y u h mpb hv mpb ff. Sup u f f h u f h f h my f mdd. Th m h h v md f wkg (.g., vwg md d dg md), d h ff f mmd dff dpdg h md. I vy mp h, wh dgg f, yu ud vu d hwg h u h u md. Th pp f vby mp bu u vby mk mk wh ug ym. Th f dg mmz h mk (.g. ug mu m vd ypg mk), bu mk v b mpy md. Cquy, yu hud ud f f h w u v fm h mk. Th b f h kd:

159 1. Cmb f duv - If u pf h py duv, h ym hud k h u fm h h y wh wd bf dyg y fm. 2. Th pv f ud fy - Ud h ym bf h ud. Mup v f ud ufu bu u d wy g mmdy h mk h b md. 3. Chkpg-Chkpg vv vg h f ym pd v d wg h ym fm h hkp. Th, wh mk u, u g bk pvu d g. My ym w ud hkpg p up wh ym fu bu, pdxy, hy d w ym u u hm v fm h w mk. A d pp h pp f u. If hud hv bu- u hp f. Th hud b gd wh h ym d hud pvd dff v f hp d dv. Lv hud g fm b fm gg d fu dp f ym f. Hp ym hud b uud h u vwhmd wh fm wh hy k f hp. Th pp f u dvy gz h, f my v ym, h my b dff yp f u. Sm w b u u wh y wh h ym wh h my b pw u wh u h ym f v hu h dy. Cu u d f h pvd gud, bu pw u qu hu h hy quky pb. Fuhm, u my uff fm db f vu yp d, f pb, h f hud b dpb p wh h. Thf, yu mgh ud f dpy gd x, p ud wh x, pdu vy g bu d. Th pp f gzg u dvy f wh h h f dg pp, m u my pf vy pd v, f xmp, u f y. Smy, h v f u gud qud b dy dff f dff u, d my b mpb dvp upp h ub f yp f u. Yu hf hv mk mpm h d f h u. U f dg p U f dg v p vvg bw u d dg. Th 3 v h p : U y - Udd wh h u w d wh h ym; Sym pypg - Dvp f pyp f xpm; If vu- Expm wh h pyp wh u. U Ay If yu d udd wh h u w d wh ym, yu hv pp f dgg ffv f. U y hv b dbd m h u d h dg udd. S wh yu db yp pd f u, wy f dbg h y. U If Pypg Th m f pypg w u g d xp wh h f. Whu uh d xp, mpb judg h uby f f. Pypg my b w-g p: Ey h p, pp pyp my b ud; Th dg h fd d gy phd umd pyp h dvpd. 96

160 Pp pypg Wk hugh ug kh f h f. U ybd p f wh h ym. Pp pypg ffv wy f gg u dg pp. Pypg hqu Sp-dv pypg - Dvp f p d ug uh Mmd D. Wh h u wh h, h hg h x dpy. Vu pgmmg- U gug dgd f pd dvpm uh Vu B. I-bd pypg- U f wb bw d d p. If Evu Sm vu f u f dg hud b d u uby. Fu vu vy xpv d mp f m ym. Idy, f hud b vud g uby pf. Hwv, f uh pf b pdud. Smp vu hqu Qu f u fdbk. Vd dg f ym u d ubqu p vu. Ium f d fm bu fy u d u. Th pv f d h fw - u fdbk. Summy A fw dg mgfu gg p f m fw pdu h b bu. A dg b d h um qum d b d f quy g pdfd. T yz h u ym d dg h qud ym fw g u m bu-p g p f ym dg. Th bup h u p f h y d by h fw g d d f uud y. Th p f mduy mpu fw h b dvd f bu fv dd. I, h fw dvdd py m d ddb mp d mdu h gd fy pbm qum. I h bj-d dg pph, h ym vwd f bj (.. ). Th dzd mg h bj d h bj mg w fm. R m mbddd ym dff fm h yp f fw ym. Th fug h u pdud by h ym d h m whh h u pdud. A f m ym ym wh p dgdd f u pdud dg h pfd mg qum. A hd m ym ym wh p f h u pdud dg m hdu. U f dg p f h v fw dg p. If fw ym hv fu p, h u f hud b dgd mh h k, xp d xp f pd u.

161 Sf Am Qu 1. Wh h p fwd fw dg ph? 2. Exp Dg p fw gg. 3. W h fw dg. 4. Wh d m by mdu dgg? 5. Wh fu d dg? 6. Wh h dff bw fu d d bj d dg? 7. Wh m dg? 8. Wh h f u f fw dg d why mp? Rf Pm R.S., 'Sfw Egg: A P' Apph', (Ffh Ed), MGw-H, Kw Bgh, 'Sfw Egg', (F Ed), Gu Pub, J, Pkj, 'A Igd Apph Sfw Egg', (Sd Ed), N Pubhg Hu, Pu S. d Sgh G., 'Sfw Egg V. 1', (Fuh Ed), Gu Pub, Smmv I., 'Sfw Egg', (Sxh Ed), P Edu, Shh S.R., 'Sfw Egg', (Svh Ed), T MGw-H, Nw Dh, M R., 'Fudm f Sfw Egg', (Sxh Ed), P-H f Id, G N.S., 'Sfw Egg: Sfw Rby, Tg d Quy Au', Kh Bk Pubhg C (P) Ld, Nw Dh, 2002 Sbhw S., 'Sfw Egg: Pp, T d Thqu', (Sd Ed), Umh Pub, Dh, 2005.

162 U -5: Sfw Tg, Quy Au Ad M Suu f h U Objv Summy Idu Tg Objv Tg Pp T C Dg Wh-Bx Tg B Ph Tg C Suu Tg. Cd Tg D Fw Tg Lp Tg Bk Bx Tg Sf Am Qu Rf Objv Afh Cmpg h u yu w uddg : Dff g pp T f g Wh Bx d Bk Bx Tg C uu d b ph g Idu Tg p g f h fw g. Dug fw gg v, h g mp bud fw fm b p gb pdu. Nw m g. Th g f h dd "dmh" h fw h h b bu. Tg h p h fw p h ud b vwd (pyhgy, ) duv h h uv. Sfw g by h u uv pp. Tg qu h h dvp dd pvd f h "" f fw ju dvpd d vm f f h u wh uvd. Tg Objv I fw g, h umb f u h v w g bjv: 1. Tg p f xug pgm wh h f dg. 2. A gd h h hgh pbby f dg -y- udvd. 3. A ufu h uv -y-udvd.

163 Th bjv mpy mpv hg vwp. Thy mv u h mmy hd vw h ufu whh fud. Th bjv dg h ymy uv dff f d d wh mmum mu f m d ff. If g dud ufuy dg h bjv, w uv h fw. A dy bf, g dm h fw fu pp b wkg dg pf, h bhv d pfm qum pp hv b m. I dd, d d g dud pvd gd d f fw by d m d f fw quy wh. Bu g hw h b f d df, hw y h fw d df p. I mp kp h m md g bg dud. Tg Pp Bf ppyg mhd dg ffv, fw g mu udd h fwg b pp h gud fw g. A hud b b um qum. A w hv, h bjv f fw g uv. I fw h h m v df (fm h um' p f vw) h h u h pgm f m qum. T hud b pd g bf g bg. T pg bg h qum md mp. Dd df f bg h dg md h b dfd. Thf, b pd d dgd bf y d h b gd. Th P pp pp fw g. Th P pp mp h 80 p f uvd dug g w ky b b 20 p f pgm mp. Th pbm, f u, h up mp d hughy hm. Tg hud bg h m d pg wd g h g Th f pd d xud gy fu dvdu mp. A g pg, fu hf mp fd gd u f mp d umy h ym. Exhuv g pb. Th umb f ph pmu f v mdy zd pgm xpy g. F h, mpb xu vy mb f ph dug g. I pb, hwv, dquy v pgm g d u h d h mp v dg hv b xd. T b m ffv, g hud b dud by dpd hd py. Th fw g wh d h ym h b p du f h fw. I hud b dud by hd py. T C Dg Th dg f f fw d h gd pdu b hgg h dg f h pdu f. Sfw g f g fhugh, dvpg h my "f gh" bu hv u f bg mp. Th bjv f g, h w mu dg h hv h hgh khd f fdg h m wh mmum mu f m d ff. A h vy f dg mhd hv vvd f fw. Th mhd pvd h dvp wh ym pph g. M mp, mhd pvd mhm h hp u h mp f d pvd h hgh khd f uvg fw. Ay gd pdu b d f w wy:

164 1. Kwg h pfd fu h pdu h b dgd pfm, b dud h dm h fu fuy p wh h m m hg f h fu. 2. Kwg h wkg f pdu, b dud u h, p pfmd dg pf d mp hv b dquy xd. Th f pph d bk-bx g d h d, wh-bx g. Wh mpu fw dd, Bk-Bx g dud h fw f. Ahugh hy dgd uv, bk-bx ud dm h fw fu p, h pu ppy pd d upu y pdud, d h h gy f x fm (.g., db) md. A bk-bx xm m fudm p f ym wh gd f h g uu f h fw. Wh-Bx Tg f fw pdd xm f pdu d. Lg ph hugh h fw d by pvdg h x pf f d d/ p. Th "u f h pgm" my b xmd vu p dm f h xpd d u pd h u u. A f g wud m h vy hugh wh-bx g wud d 100 p pgm. A w d d df g ph, dvp x hm, d vu u, h, u x pgm g d. Ufuy, mp g p g pbm. F v m pgm, h umb f pb g ph b vy g. Cmp g mpb f g fw ym. S md umb f mp g ph b d d xd. Imp d uu b pbd f vdy. Th bu f bh bk-bx d wh-bx g b mbd pvd pph h vd h fw f d vy u h h wkg f h fw. Wh-Bx Tg Wh-bx g, mm d g-bx g dg mhd h u h uu f h pdu dg dv. Ug wh-bx g mhd, h fw g dv h: 1. Gu h dpd ph wh mdu hv b xd, 2. Ex g d h u d f d, 3. Exu p h bud d wh h p bud, d 4. Ex d uu u h vdy. B Ph Tg B ph g wh-bx g hqu. Th b ph mhd b h dg dv g mpxy mu f pdu dg d u h mu gud f dfg b f xu ph. T dvd x h b gud xu vy m h pgm m dug g. C Suu Tg Th b ph g hqu f umb f hqu f uu g. Ahugh b ph g mp d hghy ffv, uff f. H h v uu g dud. Th bd g vg d mpv quy f wh-bx g.. Cd Tg Cd g dg mhd h x h g d d

165 pgm mdu. A mp d B vb xp, pby pdd wh NOT ( ) p. A xp k h fm E1 < -p > E2 Wh E1 d E2 hm xp d <-p> f h fwg: R Op (<,> <=, >= ), mpud d, B d AND,OR, NOT. A d whu xp fd B xp. Thf, h pb yp f m d ud B p, B vb, p f B ph (uudg mp mpud d), p, hm xp. If d, h mp f h d. Thf, yp f d ud h fwg: 1. B p (/mg/x B p). 2. B vb. 3. B ph. 4. R p. 5. Ahm xp. Th d g mhd fu g h d h pgm. Cd g g gy hv w dvg. F, mum f vg f d mp. Sd, h vg f d pgm pvd gud f h g f dd f h pgm. Th pup f d g d y h d f pgm bu h h pgm. If f pgm D Fw Tg Th d fw g mhd ph f pgm dg h f df d u f vb h pgm. A umb f d fw g g hv b udd d mpd. Lp Tg Lp h f h v mjy f ghm mpmd fw. Ad y, w f py hm hd wh dug fw. Lp g wh-bx g hqu h fu xuvy h vdy f p u. Fu dff f p b dfd, mp p, d p, d p, d uuud p. Smp p. Th fwg f b ppd mp p, wh h mxmum umb f wb p hugh h p. 1. Skp h p y. 2. Oy p hugh h p. 3. Tw p hugh h p. 4. m p hugh h p wh m \< ,,+1 P hugh h p. Nd p. If w xd h pph f mp p d p, h umb f pb wud gw gmy h v f g. Th wud u mp umb f.

166 1. S h m p. S h p mmum vu. 2. Cdu mp p f h m p wh hdg h u p h mmum pm (.g., p u) vu. Add h f u-f-g xudd vu. 3. Wk uwd, dug f h x p, bu kpg h u p mmum vu d h d p "yp" vu. 4. Cu u p hv b d. Cd p. Cd p b d ug h pph dfd f mp p, f h f h p dpd f h h. Hwv, f w p d d h p u f p 1 ud h vu f p 2, h h p dpd. Wh h p dpd, h pph ppd d p mmdd. Uuud p. Whv pb, h f p hud b dgd f h u f h uud pgmmg u. Bk Bx Tg Bk-bx g, d bhv g, fu h fu qum f h fw. Th, bk-bx g b h fw g dv f pu d h w fuy x fu qum f pgm. Bkbx g v wh-bx hqu. Rh, mpmy pph h ky uv dff f h wh-bx mhd. Bk-bx g mp fd h fwg g: 1) I mg fu 2) If 3) E d uu x db, 4) Bhv pfm. 5) Iz d m. Uk wh-bx g, whh pfmd y h g p, bkbx g d b ppd dug g f g. Bu bk-bx g pupy dgd uu, fud h fm dm. T dgd w h fwg qu: Hw fu vdy d? Hw ym bhv d pfm d? Wh f pu w mk gd? I h ym puy v pu vu? Hw h bud f d d? Wh d d d vum h ym? Wh ff w pf mb f d hv ym p? By ppyg bk-bx hqu, w dv f h fy h fwg : 1) T h du, by u h g h, h umb f dd h mu b dgd hv b g. 2) T h u mhg bu h p b f f, h h d y wh h pf hd.

167 2. Tg Tg h p h fw wh mud pu dm h pdu f qum d, f d, dfy h pf dff bw xpd d u u. Th vd v f fw, gg fm u m g hugh g g d pfm g, up fw ym d p.. Ifm Tg Ifm d by h dvp mu h dvpm pg. "Ifm" h d m h h d u m, ju h h qu f h fw fmy vvd, h wg f h g qud, d h h pm pup f h fd. U, mp, d ubym g uuy fm. Ifm g my b qum-dv dg- dv. Rqum-dv bk bx g d by g h pu d d h pm bd h fw qum d bvg h upu d f h fw. Bk bx g b d y v f g. I dd g f f f qum, m f h bjv f qum-dv g : Cmpu. Pp hdg f budy d, Iudg xm pu d d h u xm upu. S g xpd. Pp bhv ud hgh d. Adqu d, hdg, d vy. Dg-dv wh bx g h p wh h xm h wkg f d. Dg- dv g d by g h pu d d h pm bd h g ph h b hkd. Th g f dg-dv g ud g f: A ph hugh h d. F m fw pdu, h b fby d y h u v. B-by-b fug f f. Sz d mg f m f d. b. Fm T Fm g dm h h fw dy f dd u. A fm hud ud qu- ppvd p d pdu, quy u w, d f dp, d p. Fm g wy qum-dv, d pup dm h h fw m qum. Eh fw dvpm pj hud hv fm, h p h ud h dvpm v d dm h h fw dy f p. I dd h f p, h fm g my b d pj. F xmp, f h fw b dvpd d dvd m bud, h my b m p. A p m, y uy qud uuy dd fm ; h "fm." Af p f fw pdu, hg h pdu hud b pd u f fm. P p g hud ud g g. Rg g vv ug pvuy ud p u h h hg dd dub fu h hv pvuy b pd.

168 U Tg I U g, h mdu f d u h fm ppy fw d u f h pgm u ud. Th d uu xmd u h d d mpy m gy dug p ghm' xu. Budy d d u h h mdu p ppy bud bhd m pg. A dpd ph (b ph) hugh h uu xd u h m mdu hv b xud. Ad fy, hdg ph d. T f d fw mdu f qud bf y h d. If d d d x ppy, h m. I dd, d uu hud b xd d h mp gb d hud b d (f pb) dug u g. Sv g f xu ph k dug h u. T hud b dgd uv du u mpu, mp, mpp fw. B ph d p g ffv hqu f uvg bd y f ph. Amg h m mm mpu : 1) mudd hm pd, 2) mxd md p, 3) z, 4) p uy, 5) ymb p f xp. Cmp d fw y upd h (.., hg f fw fquy u f mp). T hud uv uh 1) mp f dff d yp, 2) g p pd, 3) xp f quy wh p mk quy uky, 4) mp f vb, 5) mpp x p m, 6) fu x wh dvg ud, d 7) mppy mdfd p vb. Ig g Ig g ym hqu f ug h pgm uu h m m wh dug uv d wh fg. Th bjv k u d mp d bud pgm uu h h b dd by dg. Th f dy mp -m g; h, u h pgm ug "bg bg" pph. A mp mbd dv. Th pgm d wh. Ad h uuy u! A f ud. C dffu bu f u mpd by h v xp f h pgm. O h d, w pp d h p u mgy d p. I Ig Tg h pgm ud d d m m, wh d ; f m ky b d mpy; d ym Apph my b ppd. Bg Bg Th wy h g g yp wk, m f h mdu gd gh fm y mp ym. Th vy m ym g h by h wh ym bf g h g. Th my dvg f h bg bg g; h y dvg h f m ym h w b h d g g hqu.

169 Th ddvg h yu wud hv w f h mdu b gd d d bg-bg g h w b qu f dy. Ay dfd vy g d vy hd dfy h fu. I vy dffu b u h g h b d bf pdu. Tp-Dw g Th wh h hgh v mp d f d h p by p w wkg dwwd (w mp). Tp-dw g my qu f h g m p wh mp d wh mp, h h m mp mdu wkd f. Th p-dw pph m by yu wud ff by gg h p v bf wy wkg yu wy dw h d gg h mp h v. Th dvg h wy f g h f pyp d hw h m f h m fuy w dy b wkg. I y m h d d h w b b m f m f h wud b k u bf gg h x g f g. Th ddvg h hd h w v mp ug d. Th h hg h w v mdu my b d muh h upp v mdu. Bm-up g Th h pp p-dw wh yu h w v mp d g yu wy upwd h hgh v mp. Th mp w b pd h v f mp d h mp mdu w b wkd f, h wy yu wud wk yu wy up by gg mp h v bf mvg upwd. Th dvg h wh h mhd yu wud b b m d m y d h m uu f hw d hg. Th ddvg h wh g pyp yu wkg pyp u y h pgm h b mpd h my k g m bf h hpp. Th my b f gdg h GUI d pgmmg. Ig - Ov Ig g b b ud v p h wy w v m h g u d w hp wh yg kp budg. Th why v p h b f g g mpy bu h w f m fdbk fm h, f h vvd wh h pj wud b ky m f hvg mk f hg h g p, f xmp p. Th b g g yp wud b p-dw h h f wy f h g p b mpd. Th hwv pbm h my u m dy h g p h h wh ug g d h p f fu pd. Th w hv b dumd, fxd d -d d w u dy h m k. Ig g g u bk bx g h g g dg hkg f h upu. Vd Tg A h um f g g, fw mpy mbd pkg, fg hv b uvd d d, d f f fw vd g-my bg. Vd b dfd my wy, bu mp (Ab Hh) df h "vd ud wh fw fu m h b by xpd by h um". A h p b-hdd fw dvp mgh p: "Wh wh h b f b xp?" Rb xp dfd h Sfw Rqum Spf

170 dum h db u-vb bu f h fw. Th pf d Vd C. Ifm d h fm h b f vd g pph. Vd T C Sfw vd hvd hugh f bk-bx h dm fmy wh qum. A p u h f b dud d pdu df pf h w b ud dm fmy wh qum. Bh h p d pdu dgd u h fu qum fd, bhv h hvd, pfm qum d, dum, d humgd d h qum m (.g., pby, mpby, vy, mby). Af h vd h b dud, f w pb d x: 1) Th fu pfm h fm pf d pd 2) A dv fm pf uvd d dfy d. 3) Dv dvd h g pj y b d p hdud dvy. I f y g wh h um bh mhd f vg df. Cfgu Rvw A mp m f h vd p fgu vw. Th f h vw u h m f h fw fgu hv b ppy dvpd, gd, d hv h y d b h upp ph f h fw f y. Th fgu vw, mm d ud. Aph d B Tg I vuy mpb f fw dvp f hw h um w y u pgm. Iu f u my b mpd; g mb f d my b guy ud; upu h md h my b ugb u h fd. Wh um fw bu f um, f p dud b h um vd qum. Cdud by h d u h h fw g, p g fm fm " dv" pd d ymy xud f. I f, p g b dud v pd f wk mh, hby uvg umuv h mgh dgd h ym v m. If fw dvpd pdu b ud by my um, mp pfm fm p wh h. M fw pdu bud u p d ph d b g uv h y h d-u m b fd. Th ph dud h dvp' by um. Th fw ud u g wh h dvp "kg v h hud" f h u d dg d ug pbm. Aph dud d vm. Th b dud m um by h d-u f h fw. Uk ph g, h dvp gy p. Thf, h b "v" pp f h fw vm h b d by h dvp. Th um d pbm ( mgd) h ud dug b g d p h h dvp gu v. A u f pbm pd dug b, fw g mk mdf d h pp f f h fw pdu h um b. Sym Tg Sym g uy f dff wh pmy pup fuy x h mpu-bd ym. Ahugh h h dff pup, wk vfy h ym

171 m hv b ppy gd d pfm d fu. I h h fw, w du h yp f ym h whwh f fw-bd ym. Rvy Tg My mpu bd ym mu v fm fu d um pg wh ppfd m. I m, ym mu b fu ; h, pg fu mu u v ym fu. I h, ym fu mu b d wh pfd pd f m v m dmg w u. Rvy g ym h f h fw f vy f wy d vf h vy ppy pfmd. If vy um (pfmd by h ym f), z, hkpg mhm, d vy, d vud f. If vy qu hum v, h m-m-p (MTTR) vud dm whh wh pb m. Suy Tg Ay mpu-bd ym h mg v fm u h mppy hm ( bf) dvdu g f mpp g p. P p bd g f v: hk wh mp p ym f p; dgud mpy wh mp p f vg; dh dvdu wh mp p f p g. Suy g mp vfy h p mhm bu ym w, f, p fm mpp p. T qu Bz "Th ym' uy mu, f u, b d f vuby fm f k-bu mu b d f vuby fm fk k." Dug uy g, h py h () f h dvdu wh d p h ym. Ayhg g! Th my mp qu pwd hugh x m; my k h ym wh um fw dgd bkdw y df h hv b ud; my vwhm h ym, hby dyg v h; my pupy u ym, hpg p dug vy; my bw hugh u d, hpg fd h ky ym y. Gv ugh m d u, gd uy g w umy p ym. Th f h ym dg mk p m h h vu f h fm h w b bd. S Tg Dug fw g p, wh-bx d bk-bx hqu ud hugh vu f m pgm fu d pfm. S dgd f pgm wh bm u. I, h wh pfm g k: "Hw hgh w k h up bf f?" S g xu ym m h dmd u bm quy, fquy, vum. F xmp, 1) Sp my b dgd h g up p d, wh w h vg. 2) Ipu d my b d by d f mgud dm hw pu fu w pd. 3) T h qu mxmum mmy h u xud. 4) T h my u hhg vu pg ym dgd. 5) T h my u xv hug f dk-d d d. Ey, h mp bk h pgm. A v f g hqu d vy g. I m u (h m mm u mhm ghm), vy m g f d d wh h bud f vd d f pgm my u xm d v u pg

172 pfud pfm dgd. Svy g mp uv d mb wh vd pu h my u by mpp pg. Pfm Tg F -m d mbddd ym, fw h pvd qud fu bu d fm pfm qum upb. Pfm g dgd h u-m pfm f fw wh h x f gd ym. Pfm g u hughu p h g p. Ev h u v, h pfm f dvdu mdu my b d wh-bx dud. Hwv, u ym m fuy gd h h u pfm f ym b d. Pfm f upd wh g d uuy qu bh hdw d fw um. Th, f y mu u uz (.g., p y) xg fh. Ex um m xu v, g v (.g., up) hy u, d mp mh gu b. By mg ym, h uv u h d dgd d pb ym fu. QUALITY ASSURANCE Th p f fw quy m mpx h wh mm pp d bv.hwv, vy ppu bh f mm pp d IT pf. If w k h df f quy dy, uu fd mhg k h fwg: f h h w u k hg b w h h m. Dff phph mp df fw quy mpx p h b dmpd m dd h b vu f quy hugh h vu f m dd h h uppd b y mu. Sfw Quy Egg p h vu,, d mpv h quy f fw. Sfw quy f dfd "h dg whh fw m qum f by, mby, pby,., d wh fu, pfm, d f qum h fd u f fw gg." Quy mu b bu fw pdu dug dvpm fy quy qum bhd f. Quy u f h udg d pg fu f mgm. Th g f quy u pvd mgm wh h d y b fmd bu pdu quy. Quy Cp Quy b dfd " h bu f mhg". A bu f m, quy f mub h-hg w b mp kw dd uh gh,, pp, mby, d. Hwv, fw, gy u y, m hgg hz h phy bj. Wh w xm m bd mub h, w kd f quy my b ud; quy f dg d quy f fm. Quy f dg f h h h dg pfy f m. Th gd f m,, d pfm pf bu h quy f dg. A hgh-gdd m ud d gh d g v f pfm pfd, h dg quy f pdu, f h pdu mufud dg pf.

173 Quy f fm h dg whh h dg pf fwd dug mufug. Ag h g h dg f fm, h hgh h v f quy f fm. I fw dvpm quy f dg mp qum, pf, d h dg f h ym. Quy f fm u fud pmy mpm. If h mpm fw h dg d h ug ym m qum d pfm g, fm quy hgh Quy. Quy V my b qud quy. Bu hw d w hv quy? Quy h f p vw, d ud hughu h dvpm y u h h wk pdu m h qum pd up, Quy ud fdbk p h p h d h wk pdu. Th mb f mum d fdbk w u u h p wh h wk pdu d f m h pf. Th pph vw quy p f h mufug p. Quy v my b fuy umd, y mu mb f umd d hum. A ky p f quy h wk pdu hv y dfd d mub pf. T whh w my mp h upu f h p. Th fdbk p mmz h df pdud. Quy Au Quy u f h udg d pg fu f mgm. Th g f quy u pvd mgm wh h d y b fmd bu pdu quy, hby gg gh d fd h pdu quy mg g. Of u, f h d pvdd hugh quy u dfy pbm, mgm' pby dd h pbm d ppy h y u v quy u. C f Quy C f quy ud ud h puu f quy pfmg quy d v. C f quy, dfy ppu f dug h f quy d pvd mzd b f mp. Quy my b dvdd d wh pv, pp, d fu. Pv ud: Quy pg Fm h vw T qupm Tg App ud v g gh pdu d "f m hugh" h p. pp ud: I-p d p p Equpm b d m Tg Fu h wud dpp f df ppd bf hppg pdu um. Fu my b ubdvdd fu d x fu. I fu h ud wh w d u pdu p hpm. I fu ud: Rwk

174 Rp Fu md y Ex fu h d wh df fud f h pdu h b hppd h um. x fu ud: Cmp u Pdu u d pm Hp upp Wy wk Sfw by Th dub h h by f mpu pgm mp m f v quy. If pgm pdy d fquy f pfm, m whh h fw quy f pb. Sfw by, uk my h quy f, b mud, dd, d md ug h d dvpm d. Sfw by dfd m "h pbby f fu f p f mpu pgm pfd vm f pfd m". Mu f Rby d Avby Ey wk fw by mpd xp h mhm f hdw by hy. M hdw d by md pdd fu du w h h fu du dg df. I hdw, fu du phy w m ky h dg d fu. Ufuy, h pp u f fw. I f, fw fu b d dg mpm pbm. Th db v h hp bw ky p hdw by d h ppby fw, hugh k h y b bhd, whwh d fw mp p h ppy bh ym m. If w d mpu-bd ym, mp mu f by m m bw fu (MTBF), wh MTBF = MTTF + MTTR (Th ym MTTF d MTTR m m fu d m m p, pvy) My h gu h MTBF f m ufu mu hm df/kloc. Sd mpy d u d wh fu, wh h df u. Bu h df d wh pgm d hv h m fu, h df u pvd d f h by f ym. F xmp, d pgm h h b p f 14 mh. My df h pgm my m udd f dd bf hy dvd. Th MTBF f uh bu df mgh b 50 v 100 y. Oh df y udvd, mgh hv fu f mh. Ev f vy f h f gy f df (h wh g MTBF) mvd, h mp fw by ggb. I dd by mu, w mu dvp mu f vby. Sfw vby h pbby h pgm pg dg qum gv p m d dfd : Avby = MTTF/ (MTTF + MTTR)? 100% Th MTBF by mu quy v MTTF d MTTR Th vby mu mwh m v MTTR d mu f h mby f fw. Sfw fy Wh fw ud p f h ym, mpxy by d f mgud m. Dg fu dud by hum -mhg h b uvd d md hdw-bd v bm muh m dffu uv wh fw ud.

175 Sfw fy fw quy u vy h fu h df d m f p k h my ff fw gvy d u ym f. If k b dfd y h fw gg p, fw dg fu b pfd h w h m p k. A mdg d y p dud p f fw fy. Iy, k dfd d gzd by y d k y. F xmp, m f h k d wh mpu-bd u f umb mgh b : Cu ud h b ppd D pd dp f bk pd (by ug ff) d gg wh wh vd Swy g pd SQA P O h ym-v k dfd, y hqu ud g vy d pbby f u. T b ffv, fw mu b yzd h x f h ym. F xmp, ub u pu my b mgfd by fw fu pdu d h mppy p mh dv. If f x vm d m, h mpp p f h mh dv w u ufu fu. Ay hqu uh fu y, -m g, b ud pd h h f v h u k d h pbby h h f h v w u h h. O k dfd d yzd, fy-d qum b pfd f h fw. Th, h pf f udb v d h dd ym p h v. Th f fw mgg udb v h dd. Ahugh fw by d fw fy y d h, mp udd h ub dff bw hm. Sfw by u y dm h khd h fw fu w u. Hwv, h u f fu d y u hzd mhp. Sfw fy xm h wy whh fu u d h d mhp. Th, fu dd vuum, bu vud h x f mpu-bd ym. Th SQA p pvd d mp f ug fw quy u. Dvpd by h SQA gup d h pj m, h p v mp f SQA v h ud f h fw pj. Th pup d p f h dum d d h fw p v h vd by quy u. A dum d h SQA p d d ppb dd d.th Mgm f h p db SQA' p h gz uu; SQA k d v d h pm hughu h fw p; d h gz d pb v pdu quy. Th Dum db h f h wk pdu pdud p f h fw p. Th ud: Pj dum (.g., pj p) Md (.g., ERD, hh) Th dum (.g., pf, p) U dum (.g., hp f) I dd h df h mmum f wk pdu h pb hv hgh quy. Sdd, P, d Cv ppb dd/p h

176 ppd dug h fw p (.g., dum dd, dg dd, d vw gud). I dd pj, p, d ( m ) pdu m h b d p f fw gg wk d. Th Rvw d Aud f h p df h vw d ud b dud by h fw gg m, h SQA gup d h um. I pvd vvw f h pph f h vw d ud. I. Pup f p II. Rf III. Mgm 1. Ogz 2. Tk 3. Rpb IV. Dum 1. Pup 2. Rqud fw gg dum 3. Oh dum V. Sdd, P, d Cv 1. Pup 2. Cv VI. Rvw d Aud 1. Pup 2. Rvw Rqum. fw qum vw b. dg vw. fw vf d vd vw d. fu ud. phy ud f. -p ud g. mgm vw VII. T VIII Pbm Rpg d Cv A IX. T, Thqu, d Mhdg X. Cd C XI. Md C XII. Supp C XIII. Rd C, M, d R XIV. Tg XV. Rk Mgm I df d-kpg qum, Pbm Rpg d Cv A df pdu f pg, kg, d vg d df, d df h gz pb f h v. Th md f h SQA p df h d mhd h upp SQA v d k f fw fgu mgm pdu f g hg;

177 df mgm pph, bh mhd f mbg, fgudg, d mg d, df g qud m h d f h p, d df mhd f dfyg, g, mg, d g k. Th ISO 9000 Quy Sdd A Quy u ym my b dfd h gz uu, pb, pdu, p, d u f mpmg quy mgm. ISO 9000 db quy u m g m h b ppd y bu gd f h pdu v ffd. T bm gd f h quy u ym md d ISO 9000, mpy' quy ym d p uzd by hd py ud f mp h dd d f ffv p. Up ufu g, mpy ud f fm g bdy pd by h ud. Smu uv ud u ud mp h dd. Th ISO Apph Quy Au Sym Th ISO 9000 quy u md p wk f d p. F quy ym b ISO-mp, h p mu dd h dfd h dd d mu b dumd d pd dbd. Dumg p hp gz udd,, d mpv. I h ppuy udd d mpv h p wk h ff, php, h g bf gz h dg d mpm ISO mp quy ym. ISO 9000 db h m f quy u ym g m. Th m ud gz uu, pdu, p, d u dd mpm quy pg, quy, quy u, d quy mpvm. Hwv, ISO 9000 d db hw gz hud mpm h quy ym m, Cquy, h hg dgg d mpmg quy u ym h m h dd d f h mpy' pdu, v, d uu. Th ISO 9001 Sdd ISO 9001 h quy u dd h pp fw gg. Th dd 20 qum h mu b p f ffv quy u ym. Bu h ISO 9001 dd ppb gg dp, p f ISO gud (ISO ) hv b dvpd hp h dd f u h fw p. Th 20 qum dd by ISO 9001 dd h fwg p: 1. Mgm pby 2. Quy ym 3. C vw 4. Dg 5. Dum d d 6. Puhg 7. C f um uppd pdu 8. Pdu df d by 9. P 10. Ip d g 11. C f p, mug, d qupm 12. Ip d u 13. C f fmg pdu 14. Cv d pvv

178 15. Hdg, g, pkgg, pv, d dvy 16. C f quy d 17. I quy ud 18. Tg 19. Svg 20. S hqu SOFTWARE REENGINEERING Th bjv f -gg mpv h ym uu mk udd d m. I -gg, h fuy d ym hu m h m bu ud -dumg, gzg d g, mdfyg d updg h ym. I u h pbm f ym vu. I h wd, R-gg y m hvg -k y, uh p, k, dg, pph, gy ug gg pp bg d d dm mpvm. R-gg by f -mpm ym mk hm m mb. Th pph k fv pm, my: mgm phphy, pd, py, pdu, d p bg d mpvm mpg, quy, v, d pd. Wh -gg pp ppd bu p h d Bu P R-gg (BRP). Th -gg p vv u d, v gg, pgm uu mpvm, pgm mdu d d -gg. Su d h um v f pgm gug h. Ruug wg p f ym whu hgg fuy Appb wh m (bu ) ubym f g ym qu fqu m Rgg vv pug h ff mk m Th gd ym my b uud d hud b dumd Why Sfw Rgg? Evy fw h md g. A pf pd f m, dd upd -hg -uu dg d f h gz u qum. Thu, dd f h fwg - Lgy fw g Nw hgy ppg Sufu f pj g Cmp m mpg Quy bu dmdg Pp hgg (dvp jg d vg, um hgg) Sfw m pg Advg f Sfw -gg Th Sfw -gg h fwg dvg- 1. Rdud k Th hgh k w fw dvpm. Th my b dvpm

179 pbm, ffg pbm d pf pbm. 2. Rdud Th f -gg f gfy h h f dvpg w fw. Ddvg f Sfw -gg Th m ddvg f fw -gg h h p m h x h ym b mpvd by -gg. I pb, f xmp, v ym w ug fu pph bj-d ym. Mj hu hg d -gg f h ym d mgm b d u umy vv hgh dd. Ahugh gg mpv mby, h gd ym w pbby b mb w ym dvpd ug md fw gg mhd. Sfw Rgg P Md Rgg P Fwg fgu u pb -gg p. Th pu h p gy pgm d h upu uud, mdud v f h m pgm. A h m m pgm -gg, h d f h ym my b -gd. Og Pgm Mdud Og dum pgm d Pgm Rv gg Su d Pgm D mdu gg Pgm uu mpvm Suud pgm Rgd d Th v h -gg p : Su d : Th pgm vd fm d pgmmg gug m md v f h m gug dff gug. Rv gg: Th pgm yd d fm, xd fm whh hp dum g d fuy. Pgm uu mpvm: Th uu f h pgm yd d mdfd mk d d udd. Pgm mdu: Rd p f h pgm gupd gh d, wh ppp, dudy mvd. D -gg: Th d pd by h pgm hgd f pgm hg. Sfw Rgg P Md R-gg f fm ym vy h w bb fm hgy u f my y. Th why vy gz d pgm gy f fw -gg. R-gg budg vy. T mpm -gg pp, w ppy fw -gg p md. Th -gg pdgm hw h fwg fgu y md.

180 Fwd Ivy gg y D uug Dum uug Cd uug Rv uug Fg. Sfw R-gg P Md Th x v h md: 1. Ivy y 2. Dum uug 3. Rv gg 4. Cd uug 5. D uug 6. Fwd gg Th v f h fw -gg p md dbd fw: Sfw Rv Egg Rv gg h p f dvg h ym dg d pf fm u d. Pgm uu mpvm p uuud u wh wh p d mp d. Pgm mdu vv g gup d m. D -gg my b y bu f d mgm. Ayzg fw wh vw uddg dg d pf My b p f h gg p My b ud pfy ym f p mpm Pgm uddg my b ufu (bw, -f g,.).1ch f Rv Egg Th vu h f v fw gg fw: 1. Ab Lv Th b v f v-gg p d h ud ff f h ph f h dg fm h b xd fm h u d. Idy, h b v hud b hgh pb. A h b v h fw g pvdd wh fm h w w uddg f h pgm 2. Cmp Th mp f v-gg p f h v f d h pvdd b v. I m, h mp d h b v. F xmp, gv u d g, vy y dvp mp pdu dg p. Smp dg p my b dvd, bu f m dffu 3. Ivy dvp mp f UML dgm md. Ivy f h dg whh h hum gd wh umd ffv v-gg p. I m, h b v, vy mu mp w uff. 4. Dy If h dy f h v-gg p -wy, fm