원생생물. Chapter 26 안지훈

Transcription

1 원생생물 Chapter 26 안지훈

2 26.1 원생생물이란무엇인가? Protists are most easily classified by what they are not Protist diversity is reflected in their metabolism, reproduction, structure, and habitat Protists are not prokaryotes, fungi, plants or animals Motile (unlike fungi) Undifferentiated, no embryo protection (unlike plants) Undifferentiated, no complex development, no collagen (unlike animals)

3 Eukaryotic Evolutionary Tree Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 551.

4 Protist Diversity Metabolism: Aerobic Heterotrophic or autotrophic Reproduction: Asexual or sexual Life cycles of cell division highly distinctive Structure: Unicellular or colonies with little differentiation

5 Intracellular Protist Structures 수축포 Contractile vaculole pumps water to prevent lysis in freshwater 식포 Food vacuoles digest food 박막 Pellicle: Layer of supportive protein fibers under plasma membrane 위족 Pseudopodia: Lobes of cytoplasm for amoeboid movement

6 A Ciliate Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 552.

7 Protist Habitats Protists generally require liquid or moist habitats 식물플랑크톤 Phytoplankton (photosynthetic protists in water) 동물플랑크톤 Zooplankton (protists and other small organisms that feed on phytoplankton) Detritus feeders Parasites

8 26.2 원생생물집단 유굴생물은미토콘드리아가없다 Excavates lack mitochondria 원반크라스타생물에는유글레나류와운동핵편모충류가포함된다 Discicristates include the euglenoids and kinetoplastids, which are motile protists 유포생물은편모나섬모를이용하여움직인다 Alveolates have complex cytoplasmic structures and use flagella or cilia to move

9 26.2 (cont.) 이형편모생물에는갈조류가포함됨 Heterokonts include the largest protists, the brown algae 위족아메바생물은사상위족을가지는아메바이다 Cercozoa are amoebas with filamentous pseudopods 아메바생물에는대부분의아메바와두가지점균류가포함 Amoebozoa includes the amoebas and two types of slime molds

10 26.2 (cont.) Archaeplastida include red and green algae, and land plants Opisthokonts include the choanoflagellates, which may be the ancestors of animals In several protist groups, plastids evolved from endosymbionts

11 유굴생물 Excavates Flagellated, single cells Lack mitonchondria Adapted to parasitism, low oxygen 1. 중복편모충류 Diplomonadida Two nuclei and flagella, lack ER and Golgi (Giardia lamblia) 2. 부기저부충류 Parabasala Undulating membrane (Trichomonas vaginalis)

12 Pathogenic Excavates Giardia lamblia Trichomonas vaginalis Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 554.

13 원반크리스타생물 Discicristates Nontaxonomic protozoa Disc-shaped mitochondrial cristae Motile (flagella) 1. 유글레나류 Euglenoids: Free-living, photosynthetic, heterotrophic (Euglena gracilis) 2. 운동핵편모충류 Kinetoplastids: Animal parasites with kinetoplast (Trypanosoma brucei)

14 Euglena gracilis Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 555

15 Trypanosoma brucei Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 555.

16 유포생물 Alveolates 1. 섬모충류 Ciliates (Ciliophora) Motile, mostly free-living 2. 와편모조류 Dinoflagellates (Dinoflagellata) Motile, mostly free-living 3. 정복합체포자동물 Apicomplexans (Apicomplexa) Nonmotile, parasitic

17 Ciliates Ciliophora (ciliates) Swim using cilia Complex cytoplasmic structures Two types of nuclei (micronucleus, macronucleus) Can conjugate, make trichocysts Paramecium

18 Paramecium Reproduction Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 557.

19 Dinoflagellates Dinoflagellata (dinoflagellates) Shell of cellulose plates Swim using flagella Primarily marine Some photosynthetic (oceanic primary producers) Some are bioluminescent or cause red tides

20 Toxin-Producing Dinoflagellate Karenia brevis Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 558.

21 Apicomplexans Apicomplexa (apicomplexans) Nonmotile animal parasites Apical complex attaches to and invades host cells Plasmodium (malaria) spread by Anopheles mosquitoes Reproduction: Both asexual and sexual

22 Life Cycle: Plasmodium Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 559.

23 이형편모생물 Heterokonts Two different flagella: Hairy and plain Mostly on eggs and sperm 1. 난균류 Oomycota 2. 돌말식물 Diatoms 3. 황갈조식물 Golden Algae 4. 갈조식물 Brown Algae

24 Oomycota Funguslike watermolds, white rusts, downey mildew Live as saprophytes or parasites Grow as masses of hyphal filaments (diploid hyphae and mycelium) Secret enzymes to digest organic matter

25 Oomycota Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 558.

26 Oomycota: Hyphae Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 560.

27 Diatoms Bacillariophyta (diatoms) Single celled, covered by silica shells (diatomaceous earth) Autotrophs (photosynthesizers) Carbon-fixing marine plankton Asexual and sexual reproduction Daughter cells receive different sized shells Zygotes secrete new shells

28 Diatom Shells Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 560.

29 Golden Algae Chrysophyta (golden algae) Colonial forms Each cell with pair of flagella, silica scales Brown coloring from fucoxanthin

30 Brown Algae Phaeophyta (brown algae) Multicellular marine forms (including kelp) Contain algin Kelps: Largest, most complex protists Differentiated into blades, stipes, holdfasts Sporophyte and gametophyte generations

31 Golden and Brown Algae Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 561.

32 위족아메바생물 Cercozoa Amoebas with stiff, filamentous pseudopods Many produce hard outer shells (tests) 1. 방산충류 Radiolara (radiolarians) 2. 유공충류 Foraminifera (forams) 3. 클로라라크니오조류 Chlorarachniophytes

33 Radiolarians Radiolara (radiolarians) Glassy internal skeleton (component of sedimentary rock) Marine heterotrophs Axopods project through skeleton, trap prey

34 Forams Foraminifera (forams) Form chambered, spiral shells containing calcium carbonate (component of limestone, marble) Marine heterotrophs Cytoplasm extends through perforations in shells, traps prey Some with algal symbionts (autotrophic and heterotrophic)

35 Radiolarians and Forams Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 563.

36 Chlorarachniophytes Chlorarachniophytes Green, photosynthetic amoebas Engulf food using filamentous pseudopodia

37 아메바생물 Amoebozoa 1. 아메바 Amoebas Most amoebas (not Cercozoa) 2. 점균류 Slime molds (cellular, plasmodial) Complex life cycle Fruiting body forms spores by asexual or sexual reproduction

38 Amoebozoa Amoebas Amoebozoa amoebas (most amoebas) Environments: Marine freshwater, soil Lobose pseudopods (no fixed body shape) Asexual, single-celled Heterotrophs (feed on cells and organic matter) Some parasitic (amoebic dysentery)

39 Amoeba proteus Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 564.

40 Slime Molds Cellular slime molds Exist primarily as single cells Plasmodial slime molds Exist primarily as a composite mass of cytoplasm (plasmodium) with many nuclei Used in molecular research

41 Life Cycle: Cellular Slime Mold Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 565.

42 원시색소체생물 Archaeplastida Includes land plants (kigdom Plantae) and two protist groups, all photosynthesizers 1. 홍조식물 Red algae (Rhodophyta) 2. 녹조식물 Green algae (Chlorophyta)

43 Red Algae Rhodophyta (red algae) Most small marine seaweeds Differentiated into holdfast and leaflike plates, cell walls Color differences due to phycobilins Alternation of generations but no flagellated gametes Produce agar and carageenan

44 Red Algae Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 566.

45 Green Algae Chlorophyta (green algae) Same pigment as true plants Little differentiation High diversity of body forms and life cycles Symbiotic relationships with fungi (lichen) or animals Genomes most similar to true plants Charophytes: Likely ancestors of plants

46 Green Algae Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 567.

47 후편모생물 Opisthokonts Have a single posterior flagellum at some stage in life cycle 1. 입금편모충류 Choanoflagellata Collar of microvilli surrounds single flagellum Likely ancestors of fungi and animals

48 Choanoflagellate Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 569.

49 Plastids as Endosymbionts 색소체가세포내공생체로부터 Chloroplasts and other plastids in protists and land plants resulted from endosymbiotic events 1. Primary endosymbiosis 2. Secondary endosymbiosis

50 Primary Endosymbiosis 진핵세포가광합성을하는남조류를 Eukaryotic cell engulfed photosynthetic cyanobacterium Cyanobacterium became endosymbiont Endosymbiont became organelle (chloroplast) First photosynthesizing organism: Green alga Diverged into green algae, red algae, and land plants

51 Secondary Endosymbiosis 비광합성진핵생물이광합성을하는진핵세포를 Nonphotosynthetic eukaryote engulfed a photosynthetic eukaryote Three events produced photosynthetic protists Red alga ancestor (chloroplasts of heterokonts and dinoflagellates; remnant plastid in Apicomplexa) Green alga ancestor (euglenoids) Green alga ancestor (chlorarachniophytes)

52 Origin and Distribution of Plastids Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 570.

53 식물 Chapter 27 안지훈

54 27.1 육상생활로의전환 Early biochemical and structural adaptations enhanced plant survival on land Vascular tissue innovation for transporting substances within a large plant body Root and shoot systems were adaptations for nutrition and support

55 27.1 (cont.) In the plant life cycle, the diploid phase became dominant Some vascular plants evolved separate male and female gametophytes

56 Kingdom Plantae (1) 300,000 living species, 10 phyla Primary producers, chemical factories Adaptations Avoid desiccation Physical support Nutrient uptake Sexual reproduction without water

57 Kingdom Plantae (2) Plants and green algae share Cellulose walls Photosynthetic starch Chlorophylls a and b Plants evolved from charophyte green algae mya

58 Representatives of Kingdom Plantae Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 576.

59 Chara, a Stonewort Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 576.

60 Adaptations for Plant Survival on Land (1) Sporopollenin Resistant polymer, surrounds zygotes of charophytes, prevents desiccation in plant spores Cuticle Outer waxy layer, prevents desiccation Stomata Passageways for CO 2 uptake Regulate H 2 O loss

61 Adaptations for Plant Survival on Land (2) Land plants split into bryophytes (nonvascular) and tracheophytes (vascular) Tracheophyte adaptations Specialized transport cells Lignin: Strengthens secondary walls Apical meristems: Unspecialized dividing cells, allow branching Embryophyte: Dependent multicellular embryo sheltered inside parent

62 Land Plant Adaptations Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 577.

63 관다발조직 Vascular Tissue in 관다발식물 Tracheophytes Taller (> 100 m), more complex than 선태식물 bryophytes Bryophytes lack true roots and stems Need both support and transport efficiency 물관부 Xylem transports water and solutes 체관부 Phloem transports sugars from photosynthesis

64 뿌리 Root Systems Roots 지지 Anchor plants 영양흡수 Absorb water and nutrients from soil Rhizome Horizontal, modified stem Penetrates soil, anchors Root systems Underground, cylindrical absorptive structures

65 Shoot Systems 정단분열조직으로부터줄기와잎 Stems and leaves from apical meristems Leaves are modified stems Two evolutionary paths

66 Plant Life Cycle Meiosis produces haploid (n) reproductive cells Gametes fuse into zygotes Mitosis divides 포자 spores into haploid individuals 세대교번 Alternation of generations: Cycle between haploid and diploid phases 포자체 Sporophytes (2n) produce spores in sporangia by meiosis, dominate higher plants (genetic diversity) 배우체 Gametophytes (n) produce gametes by mitosis

67 Plant Alternation of Generations 포자체 접합자 감수분열 배우자 포자 배우체 Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 579.

68 Evolutionary Trend from Haploid to Diploid 2n n Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 579.

69 Phylogenetics of Land Plants Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 580.

70 27.2 선태식물문 ( 이끼 ): 비관다발육상식물 Liverworts may have been the first land plants Hornworts have both plantlike and algalike features Mosses most closely resemble vascular plants

71 선태식물에서처음나타난배우자를둘러싸는다세포구조 Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 582.

72 Bryophytes (1) 습한환경에서서식 Found in wet to moist habitats 관다발없기때문 Epiphytes grow independently on another organism Flagellated sperm without vascular system 배우자낭 Gametangia produce gametes in shelter 장란기 Archegonia produce eggs 장정기 Antheridia produce sperm

73 Bryophytes (2) Body plan analogous with tracheophytes No true roots, leaves, or stems Gametophyte larger than attached sporophyte Evolutionary position unclear Could be ancestral to or derived from vascular Completely separate lineage from vascular Most evidence shows bryophytes polyphyletic

74 선류 Mosses Phylum Bryophyta (mosses) 관다발식물과유사 Most resemble vascular plants Protonema haploid, filamentous web produces leafy gametophytes Leafy moss produces gametangia, may be bisexual or unisexual Few bryophytes have primitive transport cells Ecological functions include soil production and primary producers in harsh conditions

75 Life Cycle of a Moss 수배우체암배우체 Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 584.

76 27.3 무종자관다발식물 Early seedless vascular plants flourished in moist environments Modern lycophytes are small and have simple vascular tissues Ferns, whisk ferns, horsetails, and their relatives make up the diverse phylum Pterophyta

77 석송식물문 Phylum Lycophyta Lycophytes Vascular seedless plants, club mosses Dominated carboniferous forests as trees, modern small herbs Sporophylls Sporangia produced on specialized leaves Cone or strobulus: Cluster of sporophylls Gametophyte nonphotosynthetic, requires mycorrhizae (fungus root)

78 Lycophytes Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 588.

79 양치식물문 Phylum Pterophyta 고사리 Ferns, whisk ferns, horsetails Vascular seedless plants Abundant during carboniferous as trees Formed coal fossils (with lycophyta) Complex frond leaves in sporophyte 마디 Node: Point on stem where leaf attaches 포자낭군 Sorus on fronds 환대 Annulus encloses cluster of sporangia

80 Life Cycle: Chain Fern Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 588.

81 27.4 겉씨식물 : 최초의종자식물 Major reproductive adaptations occurred as gymnosperms evolved Modern gymnosperms include conifers and a few other groups Cycads are restricted to warmer climates

82 27.4 (cont.) Ginkgos are limited to a single living species Gnetophytes include simple seed plants with intriguing features Conifers are the most common gymnosperms

83 Gymnosperms 씨가노출 Naked seed plants Sporophyte haploid spores retained in reproductive structures 꽃가루 Pollen grains produce nonmotile sperm Pollination: Transfer of pollen to female reproductive parts, no water required 밑씨 Ovule Sporophyte structure produces female gametophyte with egg Connected to sporophyte by protective tissue

84 Seeds 종자 Seed 수정후밑씨가발달해서생기는구조structure forms when ovule matures after sperm fertilization through pollination Embryo sporophyte Surrounding, nutritive tissues Protective seed coat Seeds are major adaptations for uncertain environments Long distance transport Potential dormancy

85 소나무의종자 Seed Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 591.

86 Modern Gymnosperms Modern gymnosperms are all woody species 1. Cycads (Cycadophyta) 2. Ginkgoes (Ginkgophyta) 3. Gnetophytes (Gnetophyta) 4. Conifers (Coniferophyta)

87 Phylum Cycadophyta 소철 Cycads Flourished during Mesozoic, now only in tropics Some have large, cone-shaped strobili Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 592.

88 Phylum Ginkgophyta 은행나무 Ginkgoes: One living species, Gingko biloba Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 592.

89 27.5 속씨식물 : 현화식물 Fossil record provides little information about the origin of flowering plants Angiosperms are subdivided into several clades, including monocots and eudicots Many factors contributed to the adaptive success of angiosperms

90 27.5 (cont.) Angiosperms coevolved with animal pollinators Current research focuses on genes underlying transitions in plant traits

91 Angiosperms Flowering plants with covered seeds Carpels (specialized leaves) protects ovules and seeds Flowers contain carpels at their center Fruit structure nourishes and disperses seeds No current firm evidence for evolutionary origins

92 Phylum Anthophyta 외떡잎식물 Monocots (single cotyledon) 쌍떡잎식물 Eudicots (2 cotyledons, 3 grooved pollen grains) Magnoliids Basal angiosperms Star anise Water lilies Amborella

93 Angiosperm Adaptations 더효율적인물과영양소의이동 Efficient transport Vessel elements (more efficient than tracheids) More efficient phloem 중복수정 Double fertilization Produces embryo and endosperm 씨방이밑씨를보호 Ovary protects ovule Develops from carpel, turns into fruit

94 Life Cycle of a Flowering Plant Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 599.

95 매개자와공진화 Coevolution with Animal Pollinators Many angiosperms have specific pollinators instead of just air currents Pollinators undergo coevolution with angiosperms Heritable change in one affects other Highly specific flowers for pollinators Bats, bees, beetles, moths, birds etc.

96 Coevolution with Animal Pollinators Russell, Wolfe, Hertz, Starr and McMillan (2008) Thompson Higher Education, 1st ed., p. 600.

97 Evolutionary Transition Genes LFY encodes LEAFY regulatory protein All land plants have LFY LFY regulation level changes with plant groups Regulates growth throughout mosses Subset of tissues in ferns and gymnosperms Controls floral meristem in angiosperms