AP Biology Summer Assignment 2018

Transcription

1 Name: AP Biology Summer Assignment 2018 Reading Guide for Chapters (Unit 8) of OpenStax Online Textbook for AP Biology Answer the following questions using blue or black ink. Chapter 35: Ecology and the Biosphere 35.1 The Scope of Ecology 1. What is ecology? 2. Study figure 1 and the information on the different levels of the biological hierarchy studied by ecologists. Note the different types of questions that might be studied by an ecologist at each level of study. Use this information to develop a flowchart of the hierarchy from most to least inclusive Biogeography 3. What is biogeography? 4. List five abiotic factors. Include an example and description of each factor s influence on living organisms.

2 5. What is net primary productivity? 35.3 Terrestrial Biomes 6. What is a biome? 7. The energy budget of a biome is set by its level of photosynthesis. In general, warm temperatures and abundant rainfall translate to high levels of photosynthesis and biomes with high energy budgets. a. Which biome has the highest energy budget and, consequently, the greatest species diversity? b. Which biome would you predict has the lowest energy budget? c. What effect would you expect global warming to have on the total area of the northern coniferous forest? 8. What are the two major abiotic factors that determine terrestrial biomes? 35.4 Aquatic Biomes 9. What is the largest marine biome? 10. Describe each of the different zones that the ocean is categorized into: a. Intertidal zone: b. Neritic zone:

3 c. Oceanic Zone: d. Photic zone: e. Aphotic Zone: f. Abyssal zone: 11. How have coral reefs been affected by climate change and human activities? 12. What is an estuary? 13. How does temperature affect living organisms in lakes and ponds? 14. How are nitrogen and phosphorous limiting nutrients in ponds and lakes?

4 15. Describe two important physical characteristics of streams and rivers. 16. Rate the productivity of wetlands relative to other biomes Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change 17. What is climate? What factors are its components? 18. Describe three natural factors responsible for climate change.

5 19. What is meant by the greenhouse effect? What would life on Earth be like without this effect? 20. What is contributing to the great increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide? What are potential effects of this increase? 21. Describe two global events that have occurred that may be attributed to climate change.

6 Chapter 36: Population and Community Ecology 36.1 Population Demography 22. What two pieces of data are needed to mathematically determine density? 23. Describe the research method used to study immobile populations. 24. Describe the research method used to study mobile organisms.

7 25. Try the following problem using the formula for mark and recapture. A population ecologist wished to determine the size of a population of white-footed deer mice, Peromyscus leucopus, in a 1-hectare field. Her first trapping yielded 80 mice, all of which were marked with a dab of purple hair dye on the back of the neck. Two weeks later, the trapping was repeated. This time 75 mice were trapped, out of which 48 of the mice were marked. (Answer is at the end of the reading guide.) 26. What is the difference between density and dispersion? 27. What do each of the following dispersion patterns tell us about the individuals in the population and their interactions? a. Uniform: b. Random: c. Clumped:

8 28. In what population statistics do demographers have a particular interest? How are these data often presented? 29. Survivorship curves show patterns of survival. In general terms, survivorship curves can be classified into three types. Using the following figure, explain the three idealized survivorship patterns. 30. In the natural world, many species show survivorship curves that are combinations of the standard curves. How would an open nesting songbird s survivorship curve appear if it was Type III for the first year and then Type II for the rest of its life span? Sketch this curve on the survivorship curve graph in question 29.

9 36.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection 31. How does an organism s schedule of reproduction and survival make up its life history and affect species survival? 32. Explain the difference between semelparity (big-bang reproduction) and iteroparity (repeated reproduction) as life history strategies. 33. Explain how two critical factors may influence whether a species will evolve toward semelparity or iteroparity.

10 36.3 Environmental Limits to Population Growth 34. What does it mean for a population to be in exponential population growth? 35. What are two examples of conditions that might lead to exponential population growth in natural populations? 36. What is the advantage to using per capita birth and death rates rather than just the raw numbers of births and deaths? What will the per capita birth and death rates be if a population is demonstrating zero population growth? 37. What is carrying capacity? 38. In the logistic population growth model, the per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the is reached.

11 39. If the carrying capacity (or K) is 1,000 and N is 10, the term (K N)/K is large. Explain why a large value for (K N)/K predicts growth close to the maximum rate of increase for this population. 40. Explain why the logistic model predicts a sigmoid (S-shaped) growth curve when the population density is plotted over time. Hint: The critical part of this answer concerns why growth slows as N approaches K. 41. What are six examples of limiting resources that can influence carrying capacity?

12 36.4 Population Dynamics and Regulation 42. Compare and contrast these two terms: a. Density-independent regulation: b. Density-dependent regulation: 43. Explain how negative feedback plays an essential role in the unifying theme of regulation of populations. Does negative feedback play a role in both density-independent and density-dependent regulation?

13 44. Complete the following chart. You may need to research some examples of each. Negative Feedback Mechanism Explanation Example Competition for resources Disease Predation Territoriality

14 45. Explain the ideas behind the following terms: a. K-selection: b. r-selection: 36.5 Human Population Growth 46. Summarize human population growth since How have humans overcome density-dependent growth regulation?

15 48. You should be able to look at age-structure graphs and make predictions about the future growth of the population. Using the figure below, describe the key features for the three age-structure graphs and predict how the population of each country will grow. Country Key Features Predicted Future Growth Afghanistan United States Italy

16 36.6 Community Ecology 49. What is a community? 50. What are the two components of species diversity? 51. Provide examples of some predator-prey combinations as listed in the following chart. Predator Prey Example Animal Animal Animal Plant Fungus Animal Bacteria Animal Fungus Plant

17 52. Describe three ways prey species might elude predators. 53. What are two plant adaptations to avoid herbivory? 54. What are three special adaptations that some predator species might possess for obtaining food?

18 55. Compare the two types of mimicry. Type of Mimicry Description Example Batesian Müllerian 56. What is the competitive exclusion principle? Give one example. 57. Intraspecific competition is competition between members of the same species. Interspecific competition is competition between members of different species for the same resource. Discuss resource partitioning to explain how interspecific competition is reduced.

19 58. Describe and give an example of each of the following interactions: Type of Interaction Description Example Symbiosis Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism 59. Using +/ /0 symbols to indicate how interspecific interactions affect survival and reproduction of the two species, fill in this notation for each of the following. Type of Interaction +/+, +/-, -/-, +0 Predation Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism Interspecific competition Herbivory

20 60. What is a foundation species? Provide one example. 61. Explain latitudinal gradients in terms of species richness. Where is species richness greatest? 62. Explain key factors that cause the latitudinal difference in biodiversity. 63. Name one keystone species, and explain the effect its removal has on the ecosystem.

21 64. Name one introduced species that present a serious threat to their new environment and explain the damage done. 65. Ecological succession is the changes in species that occupy an area after a disturbance. What is the difference between primary succession and secondary succession? Provide examples of each Behavioral Biology: Proximate and Ultimate Causes of Behavior 66. What is the difference between innate and learned behavior? Give an example of each and describe how the behavior increases fitness.

22 67. Describe what kinesis is and provide an example. 68. Describe what taxis is and provide an example. 69. Explain what a fixed action pattern is using the three-spined stickleback as your example. 70. What is migration? 71. What is foraging behavior?

23 72. What is proposed by optimal foraging behaviors? Explain it in terms of cost and benefit. 73. To demonstrate that you understand the principle of optimal foraging, describe a food source that you would not be likely to exploit and explain why. 74. What are pheromones? Give three specific types of information that can be transmitted through pheromones. 75. Animals communicate in various ways. Discuss at least three specific examples using different organisms.

24 76. What is altruism? 77. Explain the evolutionary advantage to a population of having members who exhibit altruistic behavior. 78. Altruism may reduce the fitness of an individual for example, by making that individual more obvious to a predator. Explain this behavior using the concept of inclusive fitness. 79. Contrast kin selection and reciprocal altruism.

25 80. Explain each of the two types of sexual selection. a. Intersexual selection: b. Intrasexual selections: 81. How can mate choice increase fitness? 82. Provide an example of agonistic or aggressive behavior in mating rituals. 83. There are a number of different possible mating systems. For each, give an example of a species that uses the system and an underlying evolutionary benefit of the system. a. Monogamy: Polygamy is when an individual of one sex mates with several of the other. Examples of the two main types are listed below. b. Polygyny: c. Polyandry:

26 84. What is habituation? Provide an example. 85. Describe the process of imprinting. 86. Watch the International Crane Foundation video. What special challenges did researchers face in order to return whooping cranes to the wild? What would you have to wear if you worked with hatchlings? Why? 87. What are two types of associative learning? Which type did Ivan Pavlov use to get a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell?

27 88. What occurs in operant conditioning? 89. What is cognitive learning? Give two examples of cognition in animal species. Chapter 37: Ecosystems 37.1 Ecology for Ecosystems 90. How much of Earth s surface do ocean biomes cover? 91. What does it mean when an ecosystem is in equilibrium? 92. Explain ecosystem resistance and resilience.

28 93. What are trophic levels? What is always at the first trophic level? 94. Know the levels of trophic structure in food chains. Give an example food chain here, including four links that might be found in a prairie community, and tell the trophic level for each organism. 95. What does an ecologist summarize in a food web? 96. What is the difference between a grazing food web and a detrital food web?

29 37.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystems 97. Where does energy enter most ecosystems? How is it converted to chemical energy and then passed through the ecosystem? How is it lost? Remember this: Energy cannot be recycled. 98. We can measure the efficiency of energy conversion in an ecosystem, as well as whether a given nutrient is being gained or lost from an ecosystem. Let us take a second look at trophic levels. What trophic level supports all others? 99. List three groups of organisms that are photosynthetic autotrophs What is productivity within an ecosystem? Distinguish between gross primary productivity and net primary productivity.

30 101. Biomass is the total mass of all individuals in a trophic level. Another way of defining net primary productivity is as the amount of new biomass added in a given period of time. Why is net primary productivity, or the amount of new biomass/unit of time, the key measurement to ecologists? 102. What is trophic level transfer efficiency? 103. Why are food chains limited in length? How much energy is typically transferred to each higher level? 104. Consider a food chain with 1,000 joules (an energy unit) available at the producer level. If this food chain is grass grasshopper lizard crow, how much energy is found at the level of the crow? (See answer at the end of the reading guide) Show your work here.

31 105. Examine Figure 2. Most biomass pyramids have the greatest biomass on the bottom of the pyramid. Explain why the pyramid of biomass for the English Channel is inverted Why do people who have limited diets in overpopulated parts of the world eat low on the food chain? 107. What is biomagnification? Provide an example of this within an ecosystem.

32 37.3 Biogeochemical Cycles 108. What is the hydrosphere? 109. Use the following figure to describe the water cycle. Specify the roles of evaporation, transpiration, and rainfall.

33 110. Use this figure to describe the carbon cycle. In doing so, explain how carbon enters the living system and how it leaves, indicate the role of microorganisms in the cycle, and identify the reservoir for carbon. Note that the raw materials for photosynthesis are the products of cellular respiration. The organic molecules used in cellular respiration are the result of photosynthesis. Matter cycles!

34 111. Use the following diagram to describe the nitrogen cycle. In doing so, indicate the role of microorganisms in nitrogen fixation, nitrification, and denitrification.

35 112. What is eutrophication? What are factors that contribute to eutrophication? 113. What is a dead zone? 114. How did fertilizer runoff produce a dead zone in the Chesapeake Bay? 115. What is acid rain? What effect does it have on environments?

36 Chapter 38: Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 38.1 The Biodiversity Crisis 116. What is biodiversity? 117. What is adaptive radiation? Provide two examples of species that have gone through adaptive radiation What effect did the introduction of the Nile Perch have on the ecosystem in Lake Victoria? 119. Describe the each of the following types of biodiversity: a. Genetic diversity: b. Chemical diversity: c. Ecosystem diversity:

37 120. What are endemic species? 121. Describe two possible explanations for why biodiversity increases closer to the equator What are biodiversity hotspots and what was the criteria? What was the purpose behind this concept? 123. When speciation rates begin to extinction rates, the number of species will ; likewise, the number of species will when the extinction rates begin to speciation rates. Read the text on the mass extinctions to understand how biodiversity has changed over time.

38 124. Provide an example of how human activities have caused the extinction of a species What is the species-area relationship? The number of species present as the size of the island (or habitat area). If the habitat area is, the number of species living there will also The Importance of Biodiversity to Human Life 126. How has plant and animal diversity impacted human health? 127. Why is agricultural diversity important?

39 38.3 Threats to Biodiversity 128. Use this table to organize your thoughts on how the following four threats affect biodiversity. Threat to Biodiversity How It Reduces Biodiversity Example Habitat Loss Overharvesting Introduced Species Climate Change

40 38.4 Preserving Biodiversity 129. Briefly describe one method used to measure biodiversity Describe three international treaties or national and state laws that preserve biodiversity.

41 131. What is a preserve? What are some limitations? 132. Describe an example of habitat restoration. Practice Problem Answers: 25. N = (80)(75)/48 = 125 mice/hectare 104. Grass (1,000 J) grasshopper (100 J) lizard (10 J) crow (1 J)