Humanities Department H07. HISTORY OF SCIENCE: WHAT EVERY SCIENTIST & ENGINEER SHOULD KNOW COURSENOTES

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1 Humanities Department H07. HISTORY OF SCIENCE: WHAT EVERY SCIENTIST & ENGINEER SHOULD KNOW COURSENOTES Dr James Navarro Centre for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine It is widely recognised that science has transformed our understanding of nature and our ability to control the world around us. But considered as a professional activity, science and technology are relatively recent products of Western European culture. During the first term, this course will look at the developments in European culture between the 12th and 18th centuries that brought about a dramatic change in the way people understood the structure of the heavens, the nature of the physical world and the relationship between religion and science. In the second term the course will focus on the emergence of the scientific disciplines and the role of the industrial revolution, imperialism, and war in the institutionalisation of science and technology in the 19th and 20th centuries. The course concludes by looking at the recent trend towards the commercialisation of science and impact of science on society. Careful attention will be paid throughout to the changing status of scientific knowledge within Western society and its interaction with technology and industry. The historical background will be provided by the lectures and readings. Extensive memorisation of names and dates is not a part of the course. Aims The course is designed to provide an overview of the development of the natural sciences from the medieval period to the late-20th century. Special attention will be paid to the relationship between science and technology in the period after The course develops essential transferable skills. These include written and oral communication skills, and experience in the synthesis and analysis of a range of information sources, which makes students who have taken this course more attractive to prospective employers. Objectives By taking the course students will become able to: identify and explain the peculiar nature of the scientific enterprise in different countries at key points in European history; give informed and critical comment on historical writing (both scholarly and popular) about the development of the sciences; present judgements on historical material as a formal essay; 1

2 describe how our knowledge of the natural world had changed over the past eight centuries; identify and describe the historical forces that have caused the above changes and brought into being the scientific institutions in which we now work. understand how the present role of science in society emerged from the historical past and is shaped by current social and political values Course structure The course consists of 20 lectures and 10 tutorials. Lectures will be given each week on Mondays at commencing on 8 October. Tutorials will be held fortnightly at which you will be able to discuss the issues raised in the lectures in more depth. The tutorials will be held at a time and place to be announced in the lectures. Reading Each week an introductory reading will be assigned in connection with the lecture. The amount of reading has been kept to a practical minimum (for the benefit of overworked scientists and engineers) on the understanding that what is set must be read. You will find it helpful to do the reading before the lecture. Essays and assessment Essays. You will be expected to write two essays of about 2000 words each. These are intended to provide an opportunity for you to explore in greater depth an aspect in the history of science and technology that you find especially interesting. Preparing and writing these essays will develop important skills in the critical assessment of texts and the effective written communication of your own ideas. These skills will certainly be useful in your subsequent career. Topics for these essays, together with notes concerning the form they should take, are given below. These topics will also be discussed further in tutorials. The first essay must be handed in to the Humanities Department Reception Desk, Humanities Department, Level 3, Sherfield Building, by on 7 January The second essay must be handed in by on 28 April Credit will be deducted for late submissions unless an extension is granted in advance. All requests for an extension MUST be arranged through the Humanities administration, and NOT directly between lecturer and student. The only valid reasons for requesting an extension to a coursework deadline are illness or a serious personal problem. Workload pressures, including examinations in the student s home department, are not judged to be a valid reason. Students needing to request an extension should download the Coursework Extension Request Form from the Humanities website. They should complete and sign the form and return it to Christian Jacobi, Humanities Administrator, or by to humanities@imperial.ac.uk, along with any supporting documentation such as a medical certificate. The Humanities Department administration will, if necessary, liaise with the home department to ascertain the seriousness of the circumstances. Apart from in very exceptional circumstances, the maximum extension period will be two weeks. Students submitting late assignments without arranging an extension will be subject to a mark penalty of 5% per day, including weekends. 2

3 You should hand your essay in at the Humanities Reception Desk, Humanities Department, Level 3, Sherfield Building. The essay will not be accepted without a Humanities Department cover sheet (included in the Humanities Student Handbook or available from the Humanities Office). This provides evidence that you have handed in your essay on time and includes a declaration that it is your own work. Assessment. Assessment of the course will depend upon (a) the quality of the two essays; and (b) performance in a two-hour written examination on the course as a whole. Regular attendance and participation in tutorials is essential if you are to do well in the course. In the final allocation of marks, the weighting will be as follows: first essay 30%, second essay 40%, examination 30%. Students with queries can contact Dr Navarro by j.navarro@imperial.ac.uk 3

4 Schedule AUTUMN TERM 2007 (Start: 8 October) 1. Introduction: history, science and technology 2. The earth and heavens in the medieval university Lindberg, D.C. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, chapter Reforming the heavens: Copernicus and astronomy Kuhn, T.S. (1957) The Copernican Revolution, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, chapter Astronomical revolution: the new Copernicanism Boas, M. (1962) The Scientific Renaissance , London, Collins, chapter Uniting heaven and earth: Galileo s new science of motion Hall, A. (1981) From Galileo to Newton, New York, Dover, chapter Magic and the Mechanical Philosophy Westfall, R.S. (1977) The Construction of Modern Science, Cambridge, CUP, chapter Experiment at the Royal Society Goodman, D. and Russell, C. (eds) (1991) The Rise of Scientific Europe , Sevenoaks, Hodder and Stoughton, chapter Physico-mathematics and the Newtonian universe Hall, A.R. (1983) The Revolution in Science, Harlow: Longman, chapter Mathematics and the exact sciences in the Enlightenment Hankins, T. (1985) Science in the Enlightenment, Cambridge University Press, chapter Classifying and measuring: the advent of a revolution in chemistry Dear, P. (2006) The Intelligibility of Nature, Chicago University Press, chapter 3. SPRING TERM 2008 (Start: 7 January) 11. National contexts: physics in London and Paris circa 1820 Fox, R. (1990) Laplacian physics in Olby, R., Cantor, G., Christie, J. and Hodge, M. (eds), Companion to the History of Modern Science, London, Routledge, pp Work, energy and the Industrial Revolution. Smith, C. (1990) Energy, in Olby, R., Cantor, G., Christie, J. and Hodge, M. (eds), Companion to the History of Modern Science, London, Routledge, pp

5 13. The age of the earth Bowler P.J. and Morus, I.R. Making Modern Science: A Historical Survey, Chicago and London, University of Chicago Press. Chapter Darwin and the origin of species. Bowler, P.J. (1992) The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences, London, Fontana, pp Electromagnetism and Empire Hunt, B.J. (1991) Michael Faraday, Cable Telegraphy and the Rise of Field Theory, History of Technology 13, pp The laboratory revolution Gooday, G. (1990) Precision measurement and the genesis of physics teaching laboratories in Victorian Britain, British Journal for the History of Science 23, pp Managing numbers: calculating technologies in Victorian England Warwick, A. (1995) The Laboratory of Theory, or What s Exact about the Exact Sciences? in Norton Wise, M. (ed.), The Values of Precision, Princeton, Princeton University Press, pp Big science and the military: the Manhattan Project Kevles, D. (1971) The Physicists, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, chapter Life as a scientific commodity: the advent of DNA. De Chadarevian, S. (2002) Designs for Life: Molecular Biology after WWII, Cambridge University Press, chapter REVISION LECTURE Exam: 17 March 2008 Essay topics and readings Essays should be approximately 2000 words in length (though this need not be adhered to strictly). The most important thing is that you express yourself clearly and concisely. Make sure (before you begin writing) that you have a clear idea of the topic you intend to address and the route by which you intend to answer the question. A substantial conclusion should be included at the end of your essay in which you summarise the main points of your argument. The readings given in connection with each essay are the best and most recent in the field. You are strongly advised to use these when preparing your essays rather than choosing books on the topic at random. Note that many of the readings referred to are articles in specialist journals (rather than books). These articles cannot be found by searching for the author; you must first locate the journal (ask at the Science Museum STS desk, Level 3) and then find the volume cited. These issues will be discussed during the library visit. 5

6 First essay topics Choose one of the following topics for your first-term essay. 1. Analyse the arguments that Copernicus used in order to convince his audience of the soundness of his new cosmic system. For a general overview of the history of astronomy up to and including Copernicus see Dreyer, J.L.E. (1953), A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, Dover, 1953, especially pp ; and Kuhn, T.S. (1957) The Copernican Revolution, Cambridge, MA, Harvard, pp You should also make a careful study of Copernicus s Preface to De Revolutionibus and the first 10 chapters of Book I. These can be found in English translation in Duncan, A.M. (1976) Copernicus: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, Newton Abbott, David & Charles, pp.22 27, Heliocentrism was accepted because it was true. Analyse the validity of the previous statement and relate Copernicus work with that of Tycho Brahe, Kepler and Galileo. For an introductory overview of the reception of Copernicanism see Kuhn, T.S. (1957) The Copernican Revolution, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, pp On the development of mathematical astronomy after Copernicus, especially in the work of Tycho and Kepler, see Dreyer, J.L.E. (1953), A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, New York, Dover, pp See also Westman, R.S. (1980) The Astronomer s Role in the Sixteenth Century: A Preliminary Study (1980), History of Science 18 (1980), pp On the early reception of Copernicanism and the work of Tycho, Kepler and Galileo see Boas, M. (1962) The Scientific Renaissance , London, Collins, pp , How does Galileo s condemnation relate to the politics of his time? For an introduction to Galileo s life and work see Ronan, C. (1987) Galileo Galilei in Porter, R. (ed.), Man Masters Nature, London, BBC, pp.39 50; and Boas, M. (1962) The Scientific Renaissance , London, Collins, pp Next, look at Galileo s own writings. For Galileo s expressed views on the relationship between science and natural philosophy see his Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina which is also translated in Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo, pp Drake also gives a helpful introduction to the text. If you would like to get a little deeper into the question read Mario Biagioli (1993) Galileo: Courtier, Chicago, Chicago University Press and Dava Sobel (2000) Galileo s Daughter, London, Fourth Estate. 4. One of the basic notions attributed to modern science is that of experiment. Critically discuss the ways by which experiments became accepted as a source of knowledge. For general background reading see Westfall, R.S. (1977) The Construction of Modern Science, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, chapters 2 and 3; Boas, M. (1962) The Scientific Renaissance , London, Collins, chapter 8; Hall, A.R. (1963) From Galileo to Newton, New York, Harper and Row (and New York, Dover, 1981), chapters 4, 5 and 9. Shapin, S. (1996) The Scientific Revolution, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 6

7 chapter 2; Shapin, S. (1988) The House of Experiment in Seventeenth-Century England, ISIS 79, pp Newton discovered gravitation and his ideas were universally accepted. Critically assess the validity of the previous statement, with a particular emphasis on the reception of Newtonianism in France. For general background reading see Westfall, R.S. (1977) The Construction of Modern Science, Cambridge, CUP, Chapter 8; Hall, A.R. (1963) From Galileo to Newton, New York, Harper and Row (and New York, Dover, 1981), chapters 10 and 11. For much more detailed accounts of the writing of the Principia, including Hooke s contribution and subsequent dispute with Newton, Herivel, J. (1965) The Background to Newton s Principia, Oxford, Clarendon; Westfall, S.R. (1980) Never at Rest: a Biography of Isaac Newton, Cambridge, CUP. On the reception of Newton s work in France skim through the following for the relevant sections: Hankins, T.L. (1985) Science in the Enlightenment, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, chapter 2; Schaffer, S. (1990) Newtonianism in in Olby, R., Cantor, G., Christie, J. and Hodge, M. (eds), Companion to the History of Modern Science, London, Routledge, pp ; and Wilson, C. (2003) Astronomy and Cosmology in Porter, R. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4 (Eighteenth-Century Science), pp Second essay topics Choose one of the following topics for your second essay. 1. Compare the different responses that British and French natural philosophers gave to the Voltaic pile and Oersted s announcement that a current carrying wire could affect a magnetic needle. s For an overview of Laplacian physics see Fox, R. (1974) The rise and fall of Laplacian physics, Historical Studies in Physical Sciences 4, pp On the reception of the Voltaic pile in France (including the Oersted effect) see Brown, T.M. (1969) Electric current in early 19th century French physics, Historical Studies in Physical Sciences 1, pp On the reception on the Voltaic pile in Britain see Golinsky, J. (1992) Science and Public Culture, Cambridge, CUP, chapter 7. The reception of Oersted s work by Faraday at the Royal Institution is discussed in Gooding, D. (1985) Experiment and concept formation in electromagnetic science and technology in England in the 1820s, History and Technology 2, pp , and Gooding, D. (1985) In Nature s School: Faraday as an Experimentalist, in Gooding, D. and James, F. (eds), Faraday Rediscovered, Basingstoke, Macmillan, pp Evaluate the possible influence of industrial Glasgow on William Thomson s work leading to his formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics. For an introduction to Thomson s work in thermodynamics in the context of nineteenthcentury physics see Harman, P. (1982) Energy, Force and Matter, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp For a very useful overview of the development of Thomson s ideas on thermodynamics and its significance for the development of British natural 7

8 philosophy see Smith, C. (1978) A new chart for British natural philosophy, History of Science 16, pp On Thomson s background in industrial Glasgow see Smith, C. (1980) Engineering the Universe, Annals of Science 37, pp For an excellent biographical account of Thomson s life that places his work in a broad cultural context see Wise, N. and Smith, C. (1989) Energy and Empire, Cambridge, CUP, pp The development of an all-encompassing theory of electromagnetism in Britain was a consequence of the efforts to lay a transatlantic submarine telegraphic cable. Critically discuss the validity of the previous statement. Make sure to read Bruce Hunt s essay (the reading set for the lecture) carefully as this is where the relationship between cable telegraphy and electromagnetic field theory is discussed in greatest detail. For an introduction to Maxwell s electromagnetic theory see Harman, P.M. (1982) Energy, Force and Matter, Cambridge, CUP, pp Maxwell s own comments on the topic are discussed briefly in Maxwell, J.C. (1954) Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, New York: Dover reprint, Volume I, v xii. For more detailed accounts of the development of Maxwell s electromagnetic theory see Siegel, D. (1985) Maxwell s Electromagnetic Theory, in Harman, P. (ed.), Wranglers and Physicists, Manchester, MUP, pp ; and Berkson, W. (1974) Fields of Force, London, Routledge, pp For a useful overview of the historical analysis of Maxwell s work in the context of nineteenthcentury British physics see Wise, N. (1982) The Maxwell Literature and British Dynamical Theory, Historical Studies in Physical Sciences 13, pp To what extent was Darwin s evolutionism a consequence of his observations on the Beagle? Analyse the relationship between Darwin s and Malthus theories. For a general introduction to Darwin s theory of evolution see Bowler, P.J. (1992) The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences, London, Fontana, chapters 5 and 8. On Darwin s voyage on the Beagle see Browne, E.J. (1995) Charles Darwin: Volume 1, Voyaging, London, Jonathan Cape; and Browne, E.J. and Neve, M. (1989) Introduction in Darwin, C. Voyage of the Beagle, London: Penguin Books. On the development of Darwin s thinking on evolution and natural selection after his return from the voyage of the Beagle see Desmond, A. and More, J. (1991) Darwin, London, Michael Joseph, pp What was the impact of the atomic bomb on the development of 20 th century science? Rhodes, R. (1986) The Making of the Atomic Bomb, New York, Simon and Schuster. Hughes, J. (2003), Manhattan Project: Big Science and the Atom Bomb, Cambridge, Icon. Galison, P. and Hevly, B. (1992) Big Science: the growth of large-scale research, Stanford University Press. 8

The Scientific Revolution,

The Scientific Revolution, 1500-1800 1800 SC/STS 3760 (6.00) York University Faculty of Science and Engineering Science & Technology Studies Program Course Director: Professor Byron Wall Office: Room 218,