FUNDAMENTALS OF DIMENSIONAL METROLOGY

Transcription

1 FUNDAMENTALS OF DIMENSIONAL METROLOGY CEJohansson Irvine, California SUB Gfittingen Mesa Community College Mesa, Arizona

2 CONTENTS ASUREMENT AND METROLOGY Measurement as the Language of Science The Uses of Measurement Communications about Measurement Acts and Applications of Measurement Codification of Measurement A Look Ahead 9 Summary 10 End-of-Chapter Questions 10 CHAPTER 2 LANGUAGE AND SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT..12 How Big? 13 How Far Apart? 14 From End to End.15 Accuracy, Precision, and Reliability 19 Accuracy versus Precision Evolution of Standards 22 Origin of the Metric System 24 Legality of the Metric System in the United States 26 The International Inch \ 26 Fundamental Criteria 26 The Best System 28 Practical Criteria 28 The Decimal-Inch System 29 Metrological Considerations 29 Communications Considerations 30 Computational Considerations 30 Rounding off, Numerical Values.31 Summary * 37 End-of-Chapter Questions 38 MEASUREMENT AND TOLERANCES Meaning of Tolerance Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 43

3 VI Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology 3-3 Tolerancing 45 Summary 51 End-of-Chapter Questions 51 CHAPTER 4 STATISTICS AND METROLOGY 4-1 * Basic Statistics Probability Acceptance Sampling 61 Summary 65 End-of-Chapter Questions...67 CHAPTER 5 MEASUREMENT WITH GRADUATED SCALES AND SCALED INSTRUMENTS The Steel Rule The Role of Error Scaled Instruments Calipers: The Original Transfer Instruments 85 Summary 98 End-of-Chapter Questions 100» CHAPTER 6 VERNIER INSTRUMENTS 1O6 6-1 Vernier Instruments Vernier Caliper Vernier Depth Gage Vernier Height Gage Three Elements of Measurement 128 Summary 128 End-of-Chapter Questions 129] \ > CHAPTER 7 MICROMETER INSTRUMENTS Micrometers Using the Micrometer 144 I 7-3 Care of Micrometers Variations of Micrometers 155 Summary 156 End-of-Chapter Questions 157 CHAPTER 8 DEVELOPMENT AND USE OP GAGE BLOCKS Development of Gage Blocks Modern Gage Blocks Calibration of Gage Blocks Gage Block Applications Combining Gage Blocks 181 Summary 198 End-of-Chapter Questions 200

4 Contents VII CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 1O CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 MEASUREMENT BY COMPARISON 2O4 9-1 The Dial Indicator Selection of a Dial Indicator Use of Dial Indicators Calibration of Dial Indicators Accessories and Attachments Constructive Use of Error 240 Summary 240 End-of-Chapter Questions.243 HIGH-AMPLIFICATION COMPARATORS High-Amplification Comparators Electronic Measurement Applications Unique to Electronic Measurement Metrological Advantages of Multiple Scales 270 Summary 278 End-of-Chapter Questions 280 PNEUMATIC MEASUREMENT Background From History to Semantics Principles of Pneumatic Instruments Application of Pneumatic Metrology Metrological Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators Reading the Pneumatic Comparator i 295 Summary 299 End-of-Chapter Questions.300 CALIBRATION 3O The Role of Error! Basic Calibration Procedure ' Record and Correct Calibration Readings 328 Summary 331 End-of-Chapter Questions 331 OPTICAL FLATS AND OPTICAL ALIGNMENT Importance of Standards Light Waves as Standards, Measurement with Optical Flats Applications of Optical Flat Measurement' Principles of Optical Metrology Alignment Telescope Straightness Measurement Optical Squares Squareness Sight Level Plumbness Optical Polygons Angles Jig Transit Planes 399

5 VIII Fundamentals of Dimensional Metrology Theodolite Angles and Planes... : Beyond Vision 407 Summary 412 End-of-Chapter Questions _ 413 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 REFERENCE PLANES Background Flatness Perpendicularity Modern Reference Planes How Flat Is Flat? 432 Summary 436 End-of-Chapter Questions 437 ANGLE MEASUREMENT Basic Geometry x Angle Measurement ' The Level The Protractor :, Trigonometric Functions Sine Bars and Plates Mechanical Angle Measurement Measurements to Seconds of Arc Accuracy and Precision in Angle Measurement The Degree, Grad, and Gon 491 Summary 493 End-of-Chapter Questions' 494 SURFACE MEASUREMENTS Background \ Surface Evaluation, Stylus Method.\ Numerical Values for Surface Assessment Surface Texture Specimens Surface Evaluation, Other Methods Roundness Notation for Surface Assessment 520 Summary 520 End-of-Chapter Questions.521 COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES Background The Role of Coordinate Measuring Machines Types of Coordinate Measuring Machines Modes of Operation Metrological Features Coordinate Systems 540

6 Contents IX 17-7 Future Expectations 540 Summary 540 End-of-Chapter Questions 541 CHAPTER 18 OPTICAL METROLOGY Principles of the Microscope Applications Comparison of Optical Comparators and Microscopes Optical Considerations Applications of the Optical Comparator Accuracy of Optical Comparators Machine Vision Systems 571 Summary 575 End-of-Chapter Questions 576 APPENDICES Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix D Decimal Equivalents 581 Conversion Tables 583 Conversion Table: Inches to Millimeters 583 Conversion Table: Millimeters to Inches 585 Geometric Optics 587 Geometric Optics 587 Single Lens Magnifiers 593 Summary 596 Prefixes Used as Multipliers 597 Recommended Pronunciation of Prefixes 597 Bibliography