Trade Restrictions and Incentives to Tax Pollution Emissions

Transcription

1 Tra Rsrcons an Incnvs o Ta olluon Emssons rlmnar nos Augus 00 Nor Taru Morhro Yomoga Yng Yao Asrac Ths ar sus h c o a ra rsrcon on an ncnv or a ra arnr o a h msson o grnhous gass W ar mova h rcn a on orr a ausmns n clma chang olcs hhr or no vlo conoms such as EU an US coul us ra masurs o ncourag vlong conoms such as Chna an Ina o ruc h msson o grnhous gass W consr a aral qulrum mol h o counrs n hch roucon ms grnhous gass ha gnra a cross-orr rnal Wh hs mol amn ho an mor ar acs an ncnv or an orng counr's govrnmn o choos a a on h msson o grnhous gass W sho ha n a cas o noncoorav omal olcs an mor ar oul nuc h orng counr o choos a lor msson a as comar o a cas n hch a ar s ann or h morng counr Ths rsul suggss ha mor rsrcons coul no ncourag ohr counrs o ao mor srngn rgulaon on h nvronmn armn o Economcs Unvrs o Haa armn o Economcs Soha Unvrs - -

2 Inroucon Clma chang an h scusson o mgaon olcs n vlong counrs hav rn olcmakrs an rsarchrs nrss n h cs o orr-a ausmns TAs on grnhous gas GHG mssons an lar among o rang counrs TA as scuss n US Hous an Sna lls s roos o ncourag non-ann-i counrs such as Chna Ina an razl o ao omsc GHG rucon olcs hr GHG mssons ar c o ncras as hr conoms gro no h uur Esng UN-as mullaral ngoaons hrough h Framork Convnon r o rov hs grong counrs h ncnvs o ao GHG rucon masurs Som olcmakrs argu ha TAs ma consu a sara laral masur o rov h sam ncnvs: n h rsnc o TAs Chna an ohrs ma hav srongr ncnv o ao GHG rucon olcs n orr o avo ng suc o TA Ths ar als gam horc aroachs o nrnaonal nvronmnal agrmns IEA n orr o analz hhr TA n rovs such ncnvs Th Koo roocol s on crcz as oo ll oo as n ar caus rovs ncv ncnvs or arcaon; n arcular lacks vlong counrs commmn o ruc GHG mssons Th Conhagn summ als o olga an counr o m a scc msson-rucon arg as ll Th gloal or o coma clma chang s suck n ssnall h sam lac: ho s gong o a or? g coss ar hurl o clma chang mgaon orr a ausmns TAs s roos o cra ncnvs or non-ann- counrs hr GHG mssons ar k on ncrasng corrson o hr ramacall grong conoms g Chna Ina razl o ruc omsc GHG mssons alng aral qulrum mol hs ar ams o amn ho ra rsrcon acs an ncnv or an orng counr o choos a a on h msson o grnhous gass Huaur al 009 summarzs hr argumns or h us o TAs: rvn ``msson lakags'' u o shs n msson-gnrang roucon acvs rom counrs h mssons rgulaon o counrs h mor lnn rgulaon rov a lvl-lang l or rms unr src mssons rgulaon Work as a mans o ncourag mor srngn mssons rgulaon n vlong counrs W al a sml o-counr/rgon ra mol o arss h las quson h som mlcaons o h rs o qusons Sccall suos a sus o counrs rsrc mssons o TA hs counrs ncourag h ohr counr - -

3 counrs o rsrc mssons? Ths quson s o hgh olc rlvanc caus counrs such as h Un Sas an Jaan ma go aha o conrol GHG mssons an ao TA Ho oul counrs such as Chna rac o hs olcs? Numrous sus analz h omal nvronmnal an ra olcs or small an larg counrs Th n o ocus on a counr's omal cson an no h oucom o gams hr mull counrs ac sragcall Krulla 99 rvs h omal ar an a or a larg counr usng a aral qulrum mol H ns ha hn olluon s no ransounar h omal a quals h gouvan lvl an h omal ar quals h sanar omal ar n ra hor Markusn 975 analzs h omal a srucur rom on counr s on o v an scusss scon s olcs hn onl on olc nsrumn hr mor ar or mssons a s avalal Luma an Wooon 994 roos a aral qulrum mol h ransounar olluon hr mssons n orgn counr gnra rnals n anohr counr u hom counr roucon cras no rnals Ovrall hs sus n o analz a counr s omal ar akng h ra arnrs olcs as gvn ulng on hs rvous sus arss h consqunc o sragc nracons among larg counrs hn h counr mosng TAs an h counr acng TAs ra arnrs oh ac sragcall Th rs o hs ar s organz as ollos Scon scrs h assumons o our mol Scon scusss h rsul o coorav soluon hl scon 4 comars hr noncoorav cass an analzs olc mlcaons o h rsuls Scon 5 conclus h ar h olc mlcaons an commns on onal uur nsons Mol Mol nvronmn Suos hr counrs ra on homognous non-numrar goo an a numrar goo Th non-numrar goo s rouc an consum n all hr counrs W consr a suaon hr counr ors h goo o counrs an W can magn ha counrs an rrsn US Jaan an Chna Th roucon o h goo gnras ngav rnals olluon ha slls ovr across counrs Th non-numrar goo s suc o ars hl h numrar goo s rl ra Th govrnmn o ach counr s a lar n h mol Assum ha counr chooss an nvronmnal/olluon a 0 r un o roucon an an mor a 0 Tra a s nrr as mor ar h counr s an morr an as or - -

4 sus s an orr Th consumr an roucr rcs a counr ar hr s h consumr urs' rc q q h roucr sllrs' rc an h orl rc L an h srag rol o h hr counrs roucr rcs L an q h man an sul gvn consumr an q n counr W ma assum ha oh ar lnar n rcs Counr 's omsc css man s M Unr h orl mark clarng conon hav M M M 0 W assum ha a un o roucon gnras a un o olluan n ach counr S h n scon aou hhr an o k hs assumon Suos a shar o olluon n counrs an slls ovr o counr k L ouus n counrs ohr han an Y h sum o Y Y h amoun o olluon n counr L h amag u o olluon n counr Th aramr Y rrsns h gr o ransounar olluon Th cas oul corrson o GHG mssons coml sllovr Wh 0 olluon s local As n Lmão 005 nrouc a olcal conom acor assumng ha ach govrnmn ma gh consumr an roucr surluss an olluon amags rnl Counr 's govrnmn has h ollong lar uncon: W q 0 M q Y hr h ghs 0 an rrsn h srngh o h mor-scor an nvronmnal los n counr an ma r across counrs Th rs o rms rrsn h gh consumr an roucr surluss h n o h rvnus rom ar an olluon a an h las rm s h amags u o olluon Ho o nrouc counrs' hrogn n a sml a W an o mol a suaon hr a GHG msson-nnsv goo s or rom counr o counrs an unr oh coorav an noncoorav soluons For hs uros assum ha h counrs ar ncal c ha counr 's margnal cos o h non-numrar roucon s lor han counrs an 's margnal coss - 4 -

5 Coorav soluon Wh or all omal ars an olluon as solv h ollong rolm: ma W W W s M M M 0 Wh or all h omal soluon s 0 or all an or all Tha s h ars shoul zro an h olluon a s a h gouvan lvl hch quals o h sum o h margnal amags n all hr counrs 4 Noncoorav oucoms W consr an vn smlr cas h on morr counr an on orr counr A goal s o consr h ollong quson: oul h orr choos hghr nvronmnal a ra hn h morr can us ar n aon o nvronmnal a comar o h cas hr ar s no avalal or h morr? Tha s os a ar ork o nuc h orr o s a srcr nvronmnal rgulaon? W consr hr alrnav squncs o movs Smulanous mov hr h orr an h morr mov a h sam m Squnal mov hr h orr movs rs choosng nvronmnal a an hn h morr movs choosng nvronmnal a an ar; Squnal mov hr h morr movs rs choosng nvronmnal a an ar an hn h orr movs choosng nvronmnal a; Each squnc o movs ma a lausl alrnav Cas ma allo us o arss h cvnss o h morr's ar as a hra agans h orr's olc choc Cas oul al assum ha h morr comms o a ar lvl rs o hch h orr rsons Cas oul a nchmark In all cass assum ha counr chooss an ar s avalal an counr chooss W assum ha ar s no avalal or ognousl gvn or counr W magn a suaon hr hrough r ra ngoaons us o ars as a olc varal has n rul ou an s ha hans h morr gos aha an us ar as a TA masur 4 rlmnars - 5 -

6 4 Th qulrum orl rc hn s no avalal Th mark clarng conon s gvn Toal rnaon o hs conon ls h ollong rvavs: No ha 0 < < or 4 Th qulrum orl rc hn s avalal Th mark clarng conon mls Toal rnaon o hs conon ls h ollong rvavs: No ha 0 < <0 < < or all an < < 0 4 Whn o counrs mov smulanousl L ˆ an ê rrsn h s rsons uncons L h Nash qulrum or h smulanous-mov cas hn s avalal L h Nash qulrum or h smulanous-mov cas hn s no avalal L an counr 's roucon an consumon h r ra an h no as on mssons 0-6 -

7 - 7-4 s avalal Frs-orr conons an mlc rssons o h conrol varals Th orr's rs orr conon or an nror soluon s 0 So mus sas Th rs rm corrsons o h rms o ra c hch s osv or h orr or small nough Th cocn o h rm nvolvng hch rrs o h or-a rvnu c s ngav Gvn 0 counr moss an or a h scon rm s osv Th hr rm s h omsc margnal amag hl h las rm rrsns h margnal sllovr c Whn an 0 h conon rucs o: Th rs rm corrsons o h rms-o-ra c hch s osv or h orr Th scon rm quals h omsc margnal amags caus h msson an h hr rm rrsns h margnal sllovr cs hch s alas ngav caus counr os no hav ar as a conrol varal s msson a mus arss all o hs hr cs n qulrum Ths has n oun n man sus nclung Markusn 975 Krulla 99 Rauschr 997 Th morr's rolm s o mamz 0 q q Th rs orr conon or an nror soluon s: 0 / 0 / Ths conons ml ˆ

8 No ha < < 0 0 an < 0 caus counr s an morr So h rs rm h rms-o-ra c s osv an h scon rm h margnal sllovr c s osv as ll Hnc h qulrum nvronmnal a choc h morr * sass h gouvan a lvl an s nnn o h orr's a lvl Tha s * hn ar s avalal as a olc varal h omal nvronmnal a shoul s o qual h omsc margnal amag an h ar shoul arss all ohr sorons/sragc cs h rms-o-ra c an h mssons sllovr c Th sam osrvaon ha a larg counr's omal nvronmnal a ra shoul qual h margnal amag hn ar s avalal has n oun n h ror lraur Markusn 975 Krulla 99 Rauschr 997 Naur o h s rsons uncons ˆ W hav < 0 ˆ ˆ an < 0 : h ar sragc susus No ha 0 caus ˆ an s nnn o h lnar o amag uncons Mor ormall suos 0 or an 0 or ˆ Suos also ha or all Thn < 0 roo: Th rs orr conon or h morr s Toall rna h rsc o an hr Thror ˆ an < 0 0 s h scon-orr rvav o h rsc o an s ngav hr 0 0 < 0 an 0 < ˆ Th rs orr conon or an nror soluon s <

9 - 9-0 Toal rnaon h rsc o an ls 0 ] [ hr s h scon-orr rvav o h rsc o an s ngav Thror < 0 ˆ hr 0 0 < 0 < an 0 Analcal rsson o h qulrum soluon } { } { A G hr } { G A A No ha 0 or 0 G 0 A an 0 A 0 G ollos rom

10 - 0-0 an 0 < 4 s no avalal Frs-orr conons an mlc rssons o h conrol varals Th mlc rsson o s h sam as n h cas hr s avalal Th rs orr conons ar 0 0 So Osrv ha h rs rm corrsons o h rms-o-ra c hch s ngav or counr Imorr an osv or counr Eorr hl h hr rm s ngav or oh counrs Thror h morr's qulrum msson s lor hn ar s no avalal: Naur o h s rsons uncons No ha 0 ˆ an 0 ˆ : h ar sragc comlmns Mor rcsl suos 0 or an 0 or Suos also ha or all Thn 0 ˆ roo: Counr 's ao s ; 0 Th rs orr conon or an nror soluon s 0 Wh oal rnaon h rsc o an ls

11 hr s h scon-orr rvav o rov ha [ ] 0 s a concav uncon Thror ˆ hr < an 0 h rsc o 0 an s ngav a Analcal rsson o h qulrum soluon G A { } 4 Comarng an No rsn on o h man rsuls so ar rooson Suos 0 or an 0 or lnar man an sul h lnar amags Suos also ha or all no olcal-conom acors Thn h orr's qulrum msson a ra s lor hn h morr moss ar on s mor < S h an or h roo Th gur on h las ag s as on a numrcal aml ha conrass an An mlcaon o h rooson s ha h avalal o ar or h morr os no nuc h orr o ao mor srngn nvronmnal rgulaon As ll s lo h concluson o rooson hols rgarlss o h orr o movs h orr an h morr In orr o rov an nuon hn h rsul o rooson no consr a gam hr morr s ar s gvn ognousl Ho o h Nash qulrum nvronmnal as chang hn ar ra ncrass? rooson scrs h rsul ha as h ar ncrass h nvronmnal a o morr - -

12 ncrass hl h nvronmnal a o orr crass Ths rsul corrsons o rooson an our smulaon rsul rooson Suos 0 or an 0 or lnar man an sul h lnar amags Suos also ha or all no olcal-conom acors Thn S h an or h roo An mlcaon o h rooson s ha h avalal o h ar or h morr nucs h orr o ao mor lnn mssons rgulaon u ncourags morr o ao mor srngn nvronmnal rgulaon Tha s caus hn ar s avalal as a olc ool coul arss all ohr sragc cs such as rms o ra cs so h nvronmnal a oul quals o h govan a ra Whn ar s no avalal h nvronmnal a o morr has o cras o arss sragc cs hch r h rsonsl o ar Incnv or h orr s sam Th concluson o rooson hols rgarlss o h orr o movs h orr an h morr 4 Whn h orr movs rs 4 s avalal Frs-orr conons an mlc rssons o h conrol varals Th morr's rolm s h sam as n h smulanous-mov cas q Y Th rs orr conon's or Imorr's ao mamzaon: Ths conons ml 0 q ˆ 0 No ha < < 0 0 an < 0 caus counr s an morr So h rs rm ToT c s osv an h scon rm h margnal - -

13 - - sllovr c s osv Th orr's ao s gvn 0 an h rs-orr conon or an nror soluon s 0 hr s h oal rvav o h orl rc h rsc o : No ha 0 hn ar s avalal---h morr's s rsons mls h margnal amag o mssons rgarlss o h orr's cson Th conon rucs o: Th rsson s smlar o h cas o smulanous mov A rnc s ha h aral rvav o s no rlac h oal rvav In h rsson aov h rs rm corrsons o h rms-o-ra c hch s osv or h orr Th scon rm quals h omsc margnal amags caus h msson an h hr rm rrsns h margnal sllovr cs hch s alas ngav As n h smulanous-mov gam h sugam-rc qulrum nvronmnal a choc h morr * sass * h gouvan a lvl an s nnn o h orr's a lvl Tha s hn ar s avalal as a olc varal h omal nvronmnal a shoul s o qual h omsc margnal amag an h ar shoul arss all ohr sorons/sragc cs h rms-o-ra c an h mssons sllovr c Th sam osrvaon

14 ha a larg counr's omal nvronmnal a ra shoul qual h margnal amag hn ar s avalal has n oun n h ror lraur Markusn 975 Krulla 99 Rauschr 997 Naur o h s rsons uncons ˆ ˆ As n h cas o smulanous mov hav < 0 an 0 an s nnn o h h lnar o amag uncons caus ˆ Mor ormall suos 0 or an 0 or ˆ Suos also ha or all Thn < 0 roo: Sam as n h smulanous-mov cas Analcal rsson o h qulrum soluon Whn ar s avalal h qulrum a ra h orr s gvn hr ˆ { c ˆ a ˆ } ˆ ˆ ˆ an ˆ sass ˆ ˆ ˆ 4 s no avalal Frs-orr conons an mlc rssons o h conrol varals Th morr's FOC s h sam as n h smulanous-mov cas: So 0 Osrv ha h rs rm ToT c s ngav or counr Imorr an osv or counr Eorr hl h hr rm s ngav or oh counrs Thror h morr's qulrum msson s lor hn ar s no avalal: Th orr's ao s - 4 -

15 0 Th rs orr conon or an nror soluon s 0 hr an Th conon rucs o: Th rsson s smlar o h cas o smulanous mov A rnc s ha h aral rvav o s no rlac h oal rvav In h aov rsson h rs rm corrsons o h rms-o-ra c hch s osv or h orr Th scon rm quals h omsc margnal amags caus h msson an h hr rm rrsns h margnal sllovr cs hch s alas ngav Naur o h s rsons uncons ˆ No ha 0 as n h cas o smulanous mov A coul o rmarks ar n orr Gvn h lnar assumons on an h sugam-rc qulrum nvronmnal a choc h morr * * sass h k hr k 0 Tha s h hghr lor h nvronmnal a h orr h hghr lor h nvronmnal a h morr W also n ha h 0 h margnal amag rom gloal mssons s larg; h < 0 s small Wh? Whn h morr s rsrc o choos onl an nvronmnal a an ar s no avalal as a olc varal h morr's qulrum a shoul arss no onl h roucon rnal rom omsc roucon u also h rms-o-ra c an sllovr cs - 5 -

16 rom orgn roucon Whn s small h amag rom mssons s no as moran as h rms-o-ra c Th aov o rsuls lkl n on h assumons o h mol arcularl aral qulrum an lnar amag uncons Analcal rsson o h qulrum soluon Whn h mor ar s no avalal h qulrum a ra h orr s gvn ˆ { c ˆ a ˆ } ˆ ˆ ˆ 4 Comarng an rooson Suos 0 or an 0 or Suos also ha or all Thn h orr's qulrum msson a ra s lor hn h morr moss ar on s mor: < S h an or h ncoml roo 5 scusson Th grnhous gas conrol s a gloal ulc goo hch maks r rng h ggs arrr o achv a clma chang mgaon agrmn Ths ar sus hhr ra-as masurs such as TA coul nhanc nrnaonal ngoaon an cooraon on clma-chang mgaon W al a o-counr aral qulrum mol h a cross-orr rnal o amn ho a ra rsrcon mor ar acs an ncnv or an orng counr o choos a a on h msson o grnhous gass Insa o sml ocusng on a counr s omal cson arss h consqunc o gams hr mull larg counrs ac sragcall W sho ha rgarlss o h orr o movs h morr an h orr n h cass o noncoorav omal olcs an mor ar oul nuc h orng counr o choos a lor msson a comar o h cas hr ar s no avalal or h morng counr Th rsul suggss ha h msson a o an orng counr s - 6 -

17 sragc susus h h ar o h morng counr hl s sragc comlmns h h msson a o h morng counr Ths rsul suors our man concluson ha ra rsrcons coul no ncourag ohr counrs o ao mor srngn rgulaon on h nvronmn Economss an nrnaonal-la scholars hav ras concrns aou h us o TAs or varous rasons such as s cvnss on arssng caron lakag an s comal h WTO ruls Th aov horcal rsul has anohr olc mlcaon on h c o TAs on rang arnrs ncnv o rgula ransounar olluon: n rms o mssons a ras h c s oun o ngav In orr o llusra h consqunc o sragc nracons among counrs an hr consqunc on nvronmnal rgulaon n ach counr us a sml mol o nrnaonal ra A numr o nsons mgh usul Tra sascs on caron-nnsv goos Iron/Sl ul/ar cmn c nca ha a laral ra s osrv among Chna US an Jaan Morovr Jaan s a n orr o Iron/Sl o Chna hl US s a n morr rom Chna In h cmn scor vn hough Jaan an US ar oh n morrs rom Chna Chna consums mos o cmn roucs omscall Th cs o hs ra acs on TAs ar ovousl no nglgl A urhr nson oul o consr an arora molng srag o analz TAs ha rlc hs ra acs Anohr naural nson o our mol oul ncorora mor counrs no h mol I hr ar mor han on vlong counrs orrs or vlo counrs morrs ho oul ac ohr counrs ncnvs o carr ou nvronmnal rgulaon an TA aoons? On coul also nvsga hhr h rsuls n hs ar oul carr ovr o gnral qulrum mols Elorng hs ssus s l or uur rsarch An roo o rooson So ar 'v rov ha h nqual hols s larg nough W ar rng o s h nqual hols or all aramr valus such ha h ra rcon rmans unalr - 7 -

18 - 8 - Suos an ar gvn c a hr c a ar osv scalars L an Wh hs sccaons h orl rc h no ar an as quals C A an hnc a an c Thn h rnc n an s gvn A A F A A G A A hr F W hav 0 < A A 0 A 0 A 0 G 0 an 0 F Thror 0 G s sucnl small caus G s ncrasng n hav 0 s sucnl small No ha h sucnl larg hav 0 n qulrum: ha s counr hch oul h orr unr naural ra hou an a or ar coms a n morr I assum ha h n o rnals s no oo larg o rvrs h rcon o ra ma h cas ha s small nough or o hol W havn' rov hs las clam Th rsson o h orr's qulrum or hn h morr's ar s no avalal s h ollong A H hr } { } { H

19 No ha < 0 an < 0 So can vr ha can ngav s sucnl larg roo o rooson W v rov hn o counrs mov smulanousl h rs orr conon h rsc o or an nror soluon or h morr s Th rs orr conon h rsc o or an nror soluon or h orr s Toall rna h o quaons h rsc o an an oan Thror usng Cramr s rul hav - 9 -

20 Wh or all h quaons ruc o hr an h nomnaor s osv Ths rsul s conssn h our rvous analss an smulaon rsul roo o rooson So ar 'v rov ha h nqual hols s larg nough I ollos ha < IF h h ollong conons hol: ˆ < ˆ ; ˆ ˆ ; * 0 ; ˆ * 4 < 0; ˆ 5 ˆ ˆ A hs on hav shon ha an 5 hol Conon 4 hols s larg nough Numrcal smulaons ml ha < hols vn s small an conon 4 os no hol so h aov conons ar sucn u no ncssar or < Rrncs Al Josh E arr Sco an Savns Ror N 00 Thrn lus On: A Comarson o Gloal Clma olc Archcur scusson ar 0-6 Rsourcs or h Fuur 00 raor av F 00 Imrovng on Koo: Grnhous Gas Conrol as h urchas o a Gloal ulc Goo rncon Unvrs Workng ar cmr 00 ra - 0 -

21 Colan ran R 990 "Sragc Inracon Among Naons: Ngoal an Non-ngoal Tra arrrs" Canaan Journal o Economcs 990: Colan ran R 996 "olluon Conn Tas Envronmnal Rn Shng an h Conrol o Forgn olluon" Journal o Inrnaonal Economcs : Colan ran R 000 "Tra an nvronmn: olc lnkags" Envronmn an vlomn Economcs Scal ssu on Tra an h Envronmn 5 000: Frrara Ia Mssos aul Ylz Hals Mura 008 Trang Ruls an h Envronmn: os Equal Tramn la o a Clanr Worl? Journal o Envronmnal Economcs an Managmn Fschr Caroln Fo Alan K 009 Comarng olcs o Coma Emssons Lakag scusson ar 09-0 Rsourcs or h Fuur 009 Frusaa T 999 Th Ngoaon o Susanal Tars Journal o Inrnaonal Economcs Ishkaa Joa Okuo Toshhro 008 Grnhous-gas Emsson Conrols an Inrnaonal Caron Lakag hrough Tra Lralzaon Arl 008 ra Krulla Krr 99 Envronmnal Rgulaon n an On Econom Journal o Envronmnal Economcs an Managmn Lmao Nuno 004 Tra olc Cross-orr Ernals an Los: o Lnk Agrmns norc mor Coorav Oucoms? Journal o Inrnaonal Economcs Lockoo n Whall John 008 Caron Mova orr Ta Ausmns: Ol Wn n Grn ols? NER Workng ar 405 Luma Ron Wooon Ian 994 Cross-orr Ernals an Tra Lralzaon: h Sragc Conrol o olluon Canaan Journal o Economcs /94/ Masa Oar 998 On h Ecnc o Grn Tra olc Envronmnal an Rsourc Economcs : Markusn Jams 975 Inrnaonal Ernals an Omal Ta Srucurs Journal o Inrnaonal Economcs 5:59 Rauschr Mchal 005 "Inrnaonal Tra Forgn Invsmn an h Envronmn" Hanook o Envronmnal Economcs n: K G Mälr & J R Vncn on volum char 7 ags

22 Whall John Ca Yuzhou an Rzman Ramon 009 Inrnaonal Tra an h Ngoal o Gloal Clma Chang Agrmns NER Workng ar

23 au an R R R R Eqm h ar Eqm hou ar Sol lns rrsn h s rsonss counr s ar an counr s msson a hn ar s avalal or counr h morr an h rokn lns rrsn h s rsonss counr an s msson as hn ar s no avalal Th vrcal as masurs counr s srag: h ar ra or h rs cas an h msson a ra or h scon cas Th horzonal as masurs counr s msson a ra