Approaching energy-neutral window glazing

Transcription

1 Approaching energy-neutral window glazing Hans Joachim Gläser Paul-Ehrlich-Str. 10 D Gummersbach Abstract Research is reported on energy-neutral window glazing as applied during the Central European heating period. Energy-neutral means that heat losses through the glazing in the night are compensated by the minimum possible solar heat gain during the day, for example when the sky is completely overcast. This may be provided by thermally insulating quadruple glazing units, by vacuum insulating glazing units (currently proposed in Germany) or by modified counter-sash windows consisting of two thermally insulating double glazing units with an intermediate venetian blind which has low-emissivity surfaces on both sides and is also solar-reflective to the outside (or an installation having comparable functions). Calculations of the energy balance based on an MS Excel program show that the investigated counter-sash glazing has an advantage over the other two types of glazing with regard to energy neutrality. In addition, the counter-sash window is least problematic regarding production, application and behaviour; all of its details are state of the art today. Because of their good thermal insulation properties, all three types of glazing may exhibit frost formation on the outdoor surface already for an overcast sky. To avoid frost or at least to reduce its frequency, a low-emissivity coating on the outdoor surface is indispensable. Because of their strong solar-collector effect, all three types of glazing additionally need protection against intense solar radiation. This is already integrated into the modified counter-sash window. Keywords: window glazing, energy saving, energy-neutrality, outdoor frost prevention 1. Introduction The need for energy saving in houses, especially by window glazing, still remains a challenge in spite of the considerable progress in this field in recent decades. Research is reported on the possibility of conceiving energy-neutral window glazing during the Central European heating period by the simulation of the heat flows from and to as well as through the glazing with an MS Excel program. Here, energy-neutral means that the heat 1

2 losses through the glazing in the night are compensated by the minimum possible solar heat gain during the day, specifically if the sky is completely overcast, so that the balance of energy loss and gain through the glazing averaged over the heating period is equalized. This is not possible - as shown below - with the window glazing marketed up to now based on double and triple thermally insulating glazing units. 2. Strategy of energy balance calculations The Central European heating period (1 st Oct. 31 st March) comprises nearly 4370 hours. Of this total, nearly 2600 hours or nearly 60% fall within the night, nearly 490 hours or nearly 10% are sunshine hours (average value for long-term observation at Munich in Germany) and the rest, i.e. nearly 1280 or nearly 30% hours correspond to overcast sky conditions. This distribution indicates the following priority for the design of energyneutral glazing: 1. During the night hours, diminishing the heat loss as much as possible. 2. During the daytime hours with overcast sky, allowing the greatest possible solar heat gain to compensate as much as possible the heat loss during the foregoing night. Finally 3. For the daytime hours with clear sky, allowing the necessary solar heat gain also to compensate the heat loss during the foregoing night as well as to support the air conditioning; i.e. excessive heat gain should be prevented. To avoid the greenhouse effect in well thermally insulated buildings, during sunny periods only a low part of heat gain can normally be used. Therefore, in this case it is permissible to take into account only diffuse solar irradiation as applied for hours with overcast sky. This simplifies the calculations greatly, because the direction of solar irradiation can be neglected. 3. Simulation calculations The basis for the simulation calculations with the MS excel program is a thermal balance model which is demonstrated by means of the heat flow diagrams for multiple shell constructions as shown exemplarily in Fig. 1 for an insulating double glazing unit [1], whereby the glazing can comprise also a venetian blind or an installation having comparable functions. It is physically permissible and will be assumed in the following that for glazing with U g < 1W/m 2 K, which are interesting here, the heat capacity and the thermal resistance of all construction elements of the glazing are zero. Then the construction is thermally balanced at each point in time, i.e. the heat flow into the glazing is equivalent the heat flow from the glazing at each point in time, in which the temperatures of the individual panes of the glazing adapt to. The heat flow Q int. is calculated with the formalism described in DIN EN 673 and DIN EN 410, respectively [2, 3]. However, in contrast to DIN EN 673, instead of the external heat transfer coefficient h e the radiation exchange with 2

3 the sky for clear and overcast sky [4] as well as the ground and also the convective heat Fig. 1: Example of an energy flow diagram for an insulating double glazing unit transfers from the external glazing surface to the outdoor air are taken into account, whereby in the case of the heat exchange with the sky the equivalent sky temperature according to [4] is applied and in the case of the heat exchange with the ground its thermal emissivity ε g is set to 1 and its temperature equals t o for an overcast sky and t o - 2 C for a clear sky. Instead of the internal heat transfer coefficient h i according to DIN EN 673 the heat exchange with the walls of the room as well as the convective heat transfers from the internal glazing surface to the room are taken into account. In this way, with the chosen thermal balance model, not only the energy loss and gain, respectively, of a glazing for all situations of solar irradiation can be simulated for the limiting cases overcast and clear sky, but also its condensation behaviour on both outside surfaces. For the subject of this report, the internal energy balance has to be investigated as a function of the solar irradiation Q bal,i (Q sol ). The calculations showed that for all types of glazing and all applied external and internal climatic conditions there exits a Q bal,i -value lying on a straight line, in the following called Q bal,i -line (s. Fig. 2), which starts for Q sol = 0, i.e. in the night, at the heat loss Q n and has the slope τ e + Q i /Q sol, known as the g-value [see 3]. Furthermore, the calculations showed that Q bal,i essentially depends on the external air temperature t o and the equivalent sky temperature t sky and increasing these temperatures displaces the Q bal,i -line parallel to higher values and vice versa [see 1]. 3

4 Figure 2: Example of a Q bal(q sol- line for window glazing under preset ambient climatic conditions On this basis, the following equations could be deduced for a period of time (PT) regarding the distribution of day hours introduced in Section 2: Bal. night /PT = Q n (t o,night )*h night,pt (1) Bal. day /PT = (Q sol,day *g - Q n (t o,day ) )*h Tag,PT (2) Bal./PT = Bal. night /PT + Bal. day /PT (3) whereby PT is the balanced period of time, which can represent a week, a month or the heating period (HP). For Q sol as well as for t o, the averaged values for the balanced period of time have to be substituted into the equations. The g-value for both the overcast and the clear sky was assumed to be the g diff -value resulting from diffuse solar irradiation (for justification see Section 2). Furthermore, for the heat loss calculation in the night, (Q n,night ) was assumed for an overcast sky in accordance with the climatic conditions in the Central European heating period HP, unless noted otherwise. Instead of exact meteorological values, the estimated averaged values Q sol and t o for the heating period (HP), documented in Tab. 1, were substituted into the equations (1) to (2) maintaining the distribution of hours as described in Section 2. Furthermore the calculations were made with the room temperature t i = 20 C and vertical installation of the glazing (β= 90 ). Because in the following, different glazing constructions are investigated comparatively, the calculation approach described above may be self-justifying. Exact absolute energy 4

5 balance values for the heating period are achieved if averaged monthly climatic values are used, as available from meteorological institutes, and adding these for the heating period. Ø climatic values per HP night day overcast sky * h day,overcast sky. /HP= 4370 h night /HP- h day,clear sky /HP Table 1: Averaged climatic values per HP used for the calculations day clear sky ØQ sol (W/m 2 ) Øt o ( C) h (hours) * Results of the calculations 4.1 Thermally insulating multiple glazing units In Tab. 2, the results of the energy balance calculations are shown for thermally insulating glazing units from the INTERPANE company, being representative for typical thermally insulating double to quadruple glazing units in the following abbreviated with HI-2x to HI-4x. Balance calculations iplus E (HI-2x) iplus 3E (HI-3x) iplus 3LS (HI-3x) iplus 4E (HI-4x) Bal. night /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. overcast sky /HP(kWh/m 2 ) Bal. clear sky /HP(kWh/m 2 ) Bal./ HP (kwh/m 2 ) Table 2: Results of the energy balance calculations for thermally insulating multiple glazing units The results of Tab.2 allow the following conclusions: 1. Assuming the same climatic conditions, the energy balance improves by nearly a factor of 4 in changing from HI-2x to HI-3x and even a factor of 100 in changing to HI-4x. 2. HI-4x approaches energy neutrality in the sense of the definition in Section 1. 5

6 3. The comparison of the two HI-3x, iplus 3E and iplus LS, with the normalized values according to DIN of U g = 0.58 and 0.69 W/(m 2 K), respectively, and g = 50.3 and 60.9%, respectively, shows that an increase of the g-value of nearly 10% together with an increase of the U g -value of about 0.1 W/(m 2 K) worsens the energy balance, if the solar irradiation Q sol is less than 100 W/m 2. Crucial for the ageing behavior of the HI-4x is the heating up of the individual panes of the unit for maximum possible solar irradiation when the glazing unit is installed in the facade. To study this, the temperatures calculated with the MS Excel program are depicted in Tab. 3, assuming that the thermodynamic laws of the interspace gas of the units as described in DIN EN 673 are also valid for higher unit temperatures. Product Pane temperature ( C); at Q sol = 800 W/m 2, t i = 20 C, t o = 30 C Pane No. 1 (outside) iplus E (HI-2x) iplus 3E (HI-3x) iplus 4E (HI-4x) Table 3: Pane temperatures of thermally insulating multiple glazing units at Q sol = 800 W/m 2 Tab. 3 shows that for the HI-4x, the two panes in the middle of the unit can heat up to temperatures of 70 till 80 C, which will not change significantly if the thermodynamics of the interspace gas are adapted to higher temperatures. The high pane temperatures result in a considerable insulating glass effect (bowing of the panes due to gas expansion) with an appreciable load on the edge bond, detrimentally affecting the ageing behaviour of the unit. In addition, the HI-4x has the following serious disadvantages: The thickness and the weight of the HI-4x is considerable resulting in major handling problems. The latter is already disadvantageous for the HI-3x. Even larger efforts are required to adapt the frame U-value (U f ) to the glass U g -value than was needed for the HI-3E, which has been introduced to the market in the last years. In view of these disadvantages, the author cannot imagine that the HI-4x will be a mass product in the future comparable with the presently marketed thermally insulating glazing units. 4.2 Counter-sash window as alternative solution

7 As an alternative solution, the modified counter-sash window depicted in Fig. 3 was investigated, consisting of two HI-2x with an intermediate solar-control/thermally insulating device, e. g. a venetian blind which has low-emissivity surfaces on both sides and is also highly solar-reflective to the outside. This window has the same number of panes as HI-4x, but not its disadvantages. Counter-sash window constructions are very old; today they are manufactured and marketed mainly in the northern European countries [5]. Figure 3: Modified counter-sash window The functions of the venetian blind are as follows: During the night, it is pulled down, so that a thermally insulated, fivefold shell construction results. During the day, it is retracted for solar heat gain until indoor comfort has been reached. Then the window works as a quadruple shell, thermally insulating construction with an air interspace in the middle of the glazing. If the solar heat gain exceeds the indoor comfort, the venetian blind is pulled down (perhaps automatically) then being highly reflective against solar irradiation. The ventilation system makes sure that the outer HI-2x does not overheat when the venetian blind operates as solar control. The ventilation valves can be closed during the night to avoid air exchange in the middle of the glazing. In Tab. 4, the results of the energy balance calculations for this counter-sash window are depicted, in which the thermal emissivity ε i of the outside surface of the inner HI-2x was varied (see variants a to c). On the outside surface of the outer HI-2x, all variants are 7

8 equipped with a low-emissive (LE) coating (ε o ) to reduce the frequency of frost formation on the outside surface (see below). Balance calculations Counter-sash window (variant a) Counter-sash window (variant b) Counter-sash window (variant c) 8 Bal. night /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. overcast sky /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. clear sky /HP* (kwh/m 2 ) Bal./HP (kwh/m 2 ) * For solar irradiation ØQ sol,clear sky = 66 W/m 2 Table 4: Results of the energy balance calculations of the glazing unit depicted in Fig. 3 The results of Tab. 4 allow the following conclusions: 1. The investigated modified counter-sash window approaches energy neutrality in the sense of the definition of Section 1, also. 2. The LE-coating on the outside surface of the inner HI-2x unit improves the result only marginally. 4.3 Comparison of energy-neutral glazing constructions The glazing constructions depicted in Tab. 5 approach energy neutrality in the sense of the definition in Section 1, whereby the vacuum insulating glazing unit, abbreviated with VIG, having an aspired U g -value of 0.5 W/(m 2 K), has been under development in Germany for years, but cannot yet be manufactured. Its thermal values as well as its g diff -value were simulated on the basis of the iplus E-coating delivered by the Interpane company and assuming the same climatic conditions as for the calculation with the other glazing units reported above. The results of Tab. 5 allow the following conclusions: 1. Regarding Bal.II/HP, the glazing of the modified counter-sash window has the best energy balance of all three investigated glazing variants, although it has the lowest solar heat gain for overcast sky hours (see Bal. overcast sky /HP) and also only low solar heat gain for clear sky hours (see Bal. clear sky /HP). The reason is the very low heat loss in the night (see Bal. night /HP). 2. In comparison to the glazing of the counter-sash window, the VIG has the highest heat loss during the night, but also the highest solar gain both for overcast and clear sky hours.

9 3. From this, it can be deduced: For optimizing the energy balance of glazing regarding energy-neutrality, considering especially low solar irradiation (Q sol < 100 W/m 2 ), the thermally insulation is more significant than the solar gain. 4. Regarding Bal.I/HP, the energy balance for the most critical case, i.e. night and overcast sky during the daytime hours, the modified counter-sash window outclasses the other two. Even so, for this balance, it best approaches energy neutrality. Remember: The heat value 9 kwh corresponds to 0.9 l fuel oil. Balance calculations HI-4E (ε o =0.2 outside) Counter-sash window (variant b) VIG (ε o = 0.2 outside) Bal. night /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. overcast sky /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal.I/HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. clear sky /HP* (kwh/m 2 ) Bal.II/HP (kwh/m 2 ) *For solar irradiation ØQ sol,clear sky = 56 W/m 2 Table 5: Result of the energy balance comparison of the 3 glazing approaching energy-neutrality Because sunshine hours fluctuate during the Central European heating period and furthermore, they are also low (see Tab. 1), i.e. they are uncertain, the author maintains that the energy balance calculated according to Bal.I/HP is the most correct description of the quality of a glazing regarding its energy neutrality. 5. Condensation behaviour on the outside surface of the investigated energy-neutral glazing Tab. 6 shows the results of investigation of frost formation on the researched energy-neutral glazing with an uncoated outdoor surface, i.e. with ε o = 0.84, for an overcast sky. t glasso is the temperature of the outdoor pane of the glazing and t glassi that of the room-side pane. Tab. 6 allows the conclusion that frost formation can arise on the outdoor surface of all three types of energy-neutral glazing already for a completely overcast sky. The reason is the very high thermal insulation of these glazing types, expressed in U g -values according DIN EN 673: 0.5 W/(m 2 K) for VIG, 0.4 W/(m 2 K) for HI-4x and 0.3 W/(m 2 K) for the modified counter-sash window glazing. 9

10 Because of the lower equivalent sky temperature for the clear sky at night - the most critical condition for outdoor surface condensation - the frequency of frost formation is a more serious problem. Frost on the outdoor surface of glazing interrupts visual contact to exterior, one of the most important function of glazing. For the avoidance of frost formation - at least to reduce its frequency -, LE-coatings are applicable [6] which have the lowest possible absorbance and reflectance, but in particular are resistant to weathering. Today there are ITO-coatings on the market with a thermal emissivity of 0.2 fulfilling these requirements. Such an outdoor coating was taken as a basis for the energy balance calculations of all energy-neutral glazing in Section 4.3. Product β = 90 ; ε o = 0.84 t o ( C) t glasso ( C) t glassi ( C) t i ( C) Table 6: Behaviour of frost formation of the treated energy-neutral glazing for an overcast sky Frost formation? iplus E (HI-2x) no iplus 3E (HI-3x) no iplus 4E (HI-4x) for rlf o > 85% Counter-sash window (vari. b) for rlf o > 84% VIG for rlf o > 82% Figures 4: Behaviour of frost formation on the outside surface of the counter-sash window glazing (variant b) with ε o =

11 In Fig. 4, the outdoor condensation behaviour of the modified counter-sash window (variant b) with such an outdoor coating is depicted when the sky is clear at night. It follows that frost formation cannot be avoided completely with such a coating. However, because its formation is only possible for external relative air humidity rh o higher than 95% - generally occurring very seldom at low external air temperatures - the expected frequency of frost formation will be very low. Frost formation can be avoided completely with a LE-coating having a thermal emissivity of Such a coating has not yet been developed with the necessary resistance to weathering [see 7]. Interesting is the outdoor condensation behaviour of VIG. Fig. 5 shows a possible condensation pattern on such a glazing unit. It occurs due to the non-uniformity of the thermal conductivity of this glazing across its surface caused by the heat bridges of the spacer beads. Note: The local U g -value at the spacer beads equals nearly 5 W/(m 2 K), whereas that in the middle between the spacer beads equals nearly 0.2 W/(m 2 K). To avoid frost formation, the value of ε o must be Due to the requirements stated above concerning such a coating, its realization seems to be very difficult. Figure 5: Possible condensation pattern on the outside surface of VIG 6. Comparative research for overcast and clear sky With the MS Excel program, it is also possible to depict the energy balance differences for completely overcast and clear sky and thus the limits of energy gains and losses, respectively, over a period of time, assuming averaged external climate values for this period of time. 11

12 In Tab. 7, the results of such a calculation are shown for the modified counter-sash window (variant b) in the Central European heating period (HP), if the averaged climatic values of Tab. 1 except ØQ sol,clear sky = 56 W/m 2 are assumed as an example. In the case of a clear sky, the Bal. clear sky /HP-value was calculated with the g-value for normally incident solar irradiation as determined in DIN EN 410; for overcast sky, Bal. clear sky /HP was still calculated with the g diff -value. Bal. overcast sky /HP was calculated in both cases with g diff, i.e. this balance value is equal in both cases. Balance calculation Clear sky Complete overcast sky Bal. night /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. overcast sky /HP (kwh/m 2 ) Bal. clear sky /HP* (kwh/m 2 ) Bal./ HP (kwh/m 2 ) *For solar irradiation Q sol, clear sky = 56 W/m 2 Table 7: Result of the energy balance comparison for the modified counter- sash window glazing (variant b) with ε o = 0.2 From Tab. 7, it can be conclude that the energy balance difference between clear and completely overcast skies is only marginal. The reason is that with increasing thermal insulation, the difference in heat loss decreases between clear and completely overcast skies. Therefore, the very high thermal insulation of the modified counter-sash window glazing unit (U g = 0.3 W/(m 2 K) in the night) explains this marginal difference. In the case of a clear sky, the higher heat loss during the night is slightly overcompensated by the solar heat gain during the day. 7. Concluding remarks Regarding the three investigated types of window glazing which approach energy neutrality in the sense of Section 1, i.e. HI-4x, VIG and modified counter-sash window glazing, all three types of glazing equipped with an external surface LE-coating having ε o = 0.2 to diminish the frequency of frost formation, the modified counter-sash window glazing outperforms the other two. All three glazing types have a strong solar-collector effect. Therefore, to limit the greenhouse effect, they must be combined with a variable solar-control device, such as the 12

13 venetian blind which is already integrated into the counter-sash window glazing and simultaneously provides variable thermal insulation. In addition, the modified counter-sash window has the following essential advantages: The variable solar-control and thermally insulating device, e. g. a venetian blind, is accessible and installed in a position protected against weathering. During extreme solar irradiation, the individual panes of the glazing cannot heat up excessively because of the cooling due to ventilation of the middle of the glazing. The adaptation of the U f -value to the U g -value is state of the art. Notice: This is very difficult for the HI-4x and VIG variants. In the case of dew or frost, this can evaporate quickly in the morning when the venetian blind is drawn up, because then the glazing acts as thermally insulating quadruple glazing with reduced thermal insulation compared to the night case. Simplified handling because the weight of the window is divided among the two glazing units. All elements of the window are state of the art. 8. Acknowledgement The author gratefully thanks the firm INTERPANE E&B for providing the technical values of its thermally insulating glazing products iplus and for supporting the preparation of this report. 9. References [1] Gläser, H. J.; Häuser, K.: Das thermische Verhalten von Fensterverglasungen in Abhängigkeit von der solaren Einstrahlung, Benutzername: tagung2011; passwort: blub [2] DIN EN 673, Glass in building - Determination of thermal transmittance (U value). Berlin: Beuth-Verlag, June 2003 [3] DIN EN 410, Glass in building - Determination of luminous and solar characteristics of glazing. Berlin: Beuth-Verlag, December 1998 [4] Feist, W.: Thermische Gebäudesimulation, Verlag C:F: Müller, 1994, s. Seite 291, Tab. 9-3, Kondratyev [5] Heinmonen, I.; Hemmilä, K.: Experiences of triple pane IG-units during 40 years of use in Nordic Countries, GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS 2011, S

14 [6] Gläser, H. J.; Szyszka, B.: Condensation on the outside surface of window glazing what are the key parameters and how to avoid with Low-E coatings? GLASS PERFORMANCE DAYS 2011, S [7] Abschlussbericht zu EnOB Verbundprojekt FirstGlass : Multifunktionelle Position 1 Beschichtung, Oktober 2010, gefördert vom BMWi mit der Fördernummer G 14