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1 J I M M Y B R O O M F I E L D M O D U L E S O V E R A P R I N C I PA L I D E A L D O M A I N T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F M I N N E S O TA

3 Contents Introduction 5 Basics of Module Theory 7 Linear Algebra Review 7 Endomorphisms and Cayley s Theorem 9 Fundamental Concepts 10 Free Modules 13 The Structure of Modules 15 Bibliography 17 Index 19

5 Introduction The theory of modules is a rich subject that is very much a generalization of abelian groups. To begin this discussion, let us give a definition of a module. See Jacobson s "Basic Algebra I" pages 157 and 158 for more of the history of this development. Definition Let R be a ring. A (left) R-module is an abelian group, (M, +, 0), together with a function η : R M M denoted η(r, a) = ra, such that for all r, s R and a, b M: 1. r(a + b) = ra + rb. 2. (r + s)a = ra + sa 3. r(sa) = (rs)(a) 4. 1 R a = a for all a M Note that if R is a division ring, then M is called a left vector space. A right R-module can be defined in a similar way, however unless otherwise noted, we will take the term module to mean left module. Before seeing a few examples of modules, we will work through some basic properties. Proposition Let M be an R-module, 0 R be the additive identity in R, 0 M be the additive identity in M, and ( ) represent the additive inverse of an element. Then to following hold. 1. r0 M = 0 M for all r R R m = 0 M for all m M. 3. ( r)m = (rm) = r( m) for all r R and m M. 4. n(rm) = r(nm) if R is a commutative ring. Now let us consider some examples of modules that will play important roles later. Example Z-modules: Every additive abelian group G is a Z-module under the map (n, a) na where n Z, and a G.

6 6 Example Subring modules: If S is a subring of R, then R is an S-module with η being multiplication in R, i.e. (s, r) sr.* Example Translation modules: If R is a ring, then define R L is the set of all maps of the form a L : x ax, where a R. If we let M = (R, +, 0), then R L is an Example Ideal modules: If I is a left ideal of a ring R, then I is a left R-module with ra being the ordinary product in R. Further I is an additive subgroup of R, therefore R/I is an abelian group (with respect to addition). Hence R/I is an R-module with multiplication given by r(r 1 + I) = rr 1 + I.** Example Annihilating modules: If M is an R-module, I is a 2- sided ideal of R, and am = 0 for all a I, m M, then we say that I annihilates M. If this is the case, then M is an R/I-module. *Note that S is not an R-module because the multiplication is not closed. **R/I need not be a ring, unless I is a 2-sided ideal. Example Cyclic modules: If M is an R-module and there exists an x in M such that M = Rx = {ax a R}, then M is said to be a cyclic module. Also, by the fundamental theorem of homomorphisms the map µ x = r rx gives rise to the isomorphism M = R/ ker(µ x ). The example above leads to an important definition that will be used later in the structure theorems for finitely generated modules over a principle ideal domain. Definition Let M be a cyclic R-module with M = Rx for some x M. Then the kernel of the homomorphism µ x = r R is denoted by ann(x). This is referred to as the annihilator of x in R. Check to see that ann x is an ideal in R As we progress through this material, we will see additional modules that will play a significant role our discussion of the structure theorems.

7 Basics of Module Theory Linear Algebra Review Linear algebra plays an important role in modern mathematics. As we shall soon see, modules have a very similar structure to that of vector spaces. This follows from our definition of a module. With this in mind, we will study the generalizations of the following concepts in the setting of module theory: vectors, linear independence, bases, linear transformations, eigenvalues, eigenvectors, matrix representation of transformations, change of basis matrices, determinants, matrix similarity, characteristic polynomials, minimum polynomials, and canonical matrix forms. Notation and Special Matrices We begin this section with a discussion of notation and special matrices that are convenient for calculations. We begin with some basic notation for working with matrices: Notation Let A be an m n matrix with entires a ij in a ring R. Then we have the following notation: 1. C j (A) = c j = [a 1j...a mj ] T is the j th column of A. 2. R i (A) = R j = [a i1...a in ] is the i th row of A. 3. r i (A) = r j = [a i1...a in ] T is the column representation of R i (A). 4. e j is the n 1 vector whose j th entry is 1 R and whose remaining entries are 0 R, for each n N, and j {1,..., n}. Using this notation, we can now state some convenient results relating the columns, rows, and entries of a matrix to the canonical base. Proposition Let A M m n (R), B M n p, i {1,..., m}, j {1,..., n}, x R n. Then we have the following: 1. Ae j = C j (A) = c j. 2. e T i A = R i(a) = r T i. 3. e T i Ae j = [a ij ] 1 1 = a ij

8 8 modules over a principal ideal domain 4. Ax = x 1 C 1 (A) x n C n (A) 5. C j (AB) = AC j (B) 6. R i (AB) = R i (A)B Proof. This is left as an exercise to the reader. Exercise If T is a linear transformation from M n (R) M n (R) where R is a commutative ring, let A be the matrix representation of T. (a) For any U GL n (R) show that UA applied to a vector x is a linear combination of A applied to x (Hint: represent x as a sum of terms that look like x i e i ). Now we will focus our attention on some of the special matrices that will help us in calculations later. Definition The elementary matrices of type-0 are denoted e ij and have all entries equal to zero except in the ij position, where it takes the value of 1 R. Definition The elementary matrices of type-1 are denoted T ij (a) (where i = j) and are given by T ij (a) = I + aeij. Definition The elementary matrices of type-2 are matrices are denoted D i (a), and are given by D i (a) = I + (a 1 R )e ii Definition The elementary matrices of type-3 are matrices are permutation matrices denoted by P ij, and are given by P ij = I n eii e jj + e ij + e ji. Here are some examples of these matrices in M 3 (R) e 2,3 = b 0 T 1,2 (b) = P 1,2 = D 2 (b) = 0 b The following proposition shows how left and right multiplication by an elementary matrix will affect an arbitrary matrix A M n (R). Proposition Let A M n (R), for a ring R. Then: 1. e ij A is the operation where each kth row of A is replaced by δ ik R j (A) i.e. the kth row is zero except when k = i in which case it replaced by the jth row. 2. Ae ij is the operation where each kth column of A is replaced by δ kj C i (A). This is similar to the case above. 3. T ij (b)(a) is the operation for which R i (A) is replaced by R i (A) + br j (A). 4. AT ij (b) is the operation for which C j (A) is replaced by C j (A) + bc i (A).

9 basics of module theory 9 5. D i (b)a is the operation where the ith row is replaced by br i (A). 6. AD j (b) is the operation where the jth column is replaced by bc i (A). 7. P ij A swaps the ith and jth rows of A. 8. AP ij swaps the ith and jth columns of A. We will conclude this section with an example of a module constructed with respect to a linear transformation T. Example Let F be a field, x be an indeterminate, and let F[x] be the polynomial ring over F. Now suppose that V is a vector space over F and T is a linear transformation from V to itself. An F[x]-module with respect to a linear transformation T is the set V along with the map η : F[x] V V given by [ an x n ] a 1 x + a 0 (v) an T n v a 1 Tv + a 0 v Endomorphisms and Cayley s Theorem This section will be brief, and the proofs will be omitted since they are easily produced. To begin, let us consider the structure of the set of endomorphisms of an abelian group. Theorem Let M be an abelian group and let EndM be the set of endomorphism of M. Then for all η, µ EndM we define ηµ by (ηµ)(x) = η(µ(x)) and η + µ by (η + µ)(x) = η(x) + µ(x). Finally if we define the maps 1 and 0 by 1x = x and 0x = 0 M, then under these operations, (EndM, +,, 0, 1) is a ring. Now consider the example below. Example M = (Z 2, +, 0), where Z 2 = {(x, y) : x, y Z}. Notice that e 1 = (1, 0) and e 2 = (0, 1) generate Z 2, since (x, y) = x (1, 0) + y (0, 1) for all x, y Z. Therefore any endomorphism, η, of M is determined by where η maps (1, 0) and (0, 1). We now claim that there is a one-to-one correspondence between EndM and Z 2 Z 2. To see this, let (x, y) Z 2 Z 2, then the map η = [ (x, y) xe 1 + ye 2 ] is an endomorphism since η((x 1, y 1 ) + (x 2, y 2 )) = η((x 1 + x 2, y 1 + y 2 )) = u(x 1 + x 2 ) + v(y 1 + y 2 ) = ux 1 + vy 1 + ux 2 + vy 2 = η((x 1, y 1 )) + η((x 2, y 2 ))

10 10 modules over a principal ideal domain Now since η is an endomorphism, and all endomorphisms are of this form, the map η : Z 2 EndM (u, v) η (u, v) [ (1, 1) (u, v) ] gives a one-to-one correspondence between Z 2 Z 2 and EndM. Now if η(e 1 ) = (a, b), and η(e 2 ) = (c, d) then we have the following bijection from EndM to M 2 (Z). ( ) a c η b d It can also be checked that this map is an isomorphism. This shows an isomorphism from EndM to M 2 (Z), showing that (EndM, +,, 0, 1) is a ring. We will soon have a theorem that is nearly the converse to theorem Before our next result we need the following definition. Definition A ring of endomorphisms is a subring of EndM for some abelian group M. Now we have Theorem (Cayley s Theorem for Rings) Any ring is isomorphic to a ring of endomorphisms of an abelian group. In the proof of Cayley s theorem for rings, if R is a ring we let M = (R, +, 0) be the additive abelian group structure of a ring R. Then the left translation module R L is isomorphic to R. Fundamental Concepts In this section, we will define several concepts and results that are basic to module theory. Before starting our list of definition, we shall make a note about our way of speaking of modules. We defined a left-module over a ring R to be an abelian group M along with a map, η, satisfying the properties in definition From now on we will call the application of the map, η, as the action of R on M. Further we will now refer to a left modules simply as a module, an R-module, or a module over R. Now we will start our list of list of definitions.

11 basics of module theory 11 Definition Let M be a module over R. A submodule N of M is a subgroup of the additive group (M, +, 0) that is closed under the action of R. Now let us consider a few examples of submodules. Example Let M be a Z-module. If N is a subgroup of (M, +, 0), then N is a Z-submodule of M. Conversely if N is a Z-submodule of M, then N is a subgroup of (M, +, 0). Example Let V be a vector space over a field F, T : V V be a linear transformation. Then V is an F[x]-module with respect to T. If W is a subspace of V and stabilized by T, i.e. T(W) W, then W is a submodule of V over F[x]. Example Let R be a ring, then M = (R, +, 0) is a module over R. In this case, the submodules of M are the left ideals of R. Example If M is a module and {N α } α A is a set of submodules of M, then α A N α is also a submodule of M. We will now define a few special submodules. Definition If M is a module and S is a nonempty subset, then we denote the intersection of all submodules of M containing S by S. We call this the submodule generated by the set S. Definition If M is a module and {N α } α A, then we define the submodule generated by the submodules {N α } α A to be N α. This set consists of all finite sums of the form i=0 n x i where each x i N αi. We denote this submodule by N α α A Definition Suppose M is a module over a ring R and let N be a submodule. Then the factor group M/N forms an R-module where a(x + N) = ax + N for all a R and x M. We call this module the quotient module of M with respect to N Now we will turn our attention to homomorphisms of modules. Definition Let M and N be modules over a ring R. Then η : M N is called a module homomorphism (also referred to as an R- homomorphism or homomorphism over R) if η is a group homomorphism of M and N which satisfies η(ax) = aη(x) for all a R and x M. Notice that if N is a submodule of M, then the natural map ν : M M/N given by x x + N is a module homomorphism from M to M/N.

12 12 modules over a principal ideal domain Theorem (First Isomorphism Theorem of Modules) Let M and N be modules and φ : M N be a module homomorphism. Then 1. The kernel of φ is a submodule of M. 2. The image of φ is a submodule of N. 3. The image of φ is isomorphic to M/ ker(φ). If φ is an epimorphism, then N is isomorphic to M/ ker(φ). Theorem (Second Isomorphism Theorem of Modules) Let M be a module, and let S and T be submodules of M. Then: 1. The sum S + T = {s + t s S, t T} is a submodule of M. 2. The intersection S T is a submodule of M. 3. The quotient modules (S + T)/T and S/(S T) are isomorphic. The following example shows the Example Let M be a cyclic module over Z. Then M = Zx for some x M, but by the first isomorphism theorem, the epimorphism η : Z Zx given by a ax leads to the isomorphism But this gives rise to two possibilities. M = Z/ ann x 1. If we have ann x = {0}, then M = Z. 2. Otherwise ann x = (n), in which case M = Z/(n). Further, since ann x is the ideal (n) and the order of x is n, we refer to ann x as the order ideal of x. We will conclude this section be defining the Hom space between two modules and giving a result on the Hom space of a module with itself. Definition Let M and N be modules over a ring R, then Hom R (M, N) is the set of homomorphisms of M into N. Theorem Let M and N be modules over a ring R, then Hom R (M, N) is an abelian group under the binary operation (η + µ)(x) = η(x) + µ(x), where η, µ Hom R (M, N) and x R. The statement above can be extended to the following result. Theorem Let M be an R-module, and define (η + µ)(x) = η(x) + µ(x) and (η µ)(x) = η(µ(x)). Then (Hom R (M, M), +,, 0, 1) is a ring, where 0 and 1 are defined in the obvious way.

13 basics of module theory 13 Free Modules To be continued...

15 The Structure of Modules Aliquam lectus. Vivamus leo. Quisque ornare tellus ullamcorper nulla. Mauris porttitor pharetra tortor. Sed fringilla justo sed mauris. Mauris tellus. Sed non leo. Nullam elementum, magna in cursus sodales, augue est scelerisque sapien, venenatis congue nulla arcu et pede. Ut suscipit enim vel sapien. Donec congue. Maecenas urna mi, suscipit in, placerat ut, vestibulum ut, massa. Fusce ultrices nulla et nisl. Etiam ac leo a risus tristique nonummy. Donec dignissim tincidunt nulla. Vestibulum rhoncus molestie odio. Sed lobortis, justo et pretium lobortis, mauris turpis condimentum augue, nec ultricies nibh arcu pretium enim. Nunc purus neque, placerat id, imperdiet sed, pellentesque nec, nisl. Vestibulum imperdiet neque non sem accumsan laoreet. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Etiam condimentum facilisis libero. Suspendisse in elit quis nisl aliquam dapibus. Pellentesque auctor sapien. Sed egestas sapien nec lectus. Pellentesque vel dui vel neque bibendum viverra. Aliquam porttitor nisl nec pede. Proin mattis libero vel turpis. Donec rutrum mauris et libero. Proin euismod porta felis. Nam lobortis, metus quis elementum commodo, nunc lectus elementum mauris, eget vulputate ligula tellus eu neque. Vivamus eu dolor. Nulla in ipsum. Praesent eros nulla, congue vitae, euismod ut, commodo a, wisi. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas. Aenean nonummy magna non leo. Sed felis erat, ullamcorper in, dictum non, ultricies ut, lectus. Proin vel arcu a odio lobortis euismod. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Proin ut est. Aliquam odio. Pellentesque massa turpis, cursus eu, euismod nec, tempor congue, nulla. Duis viverra gravida mauris. Cras tincidunt. Curabitur eros ligula, varius ut, pulvinar in, cursus faucibus, augue. Nulla mattis luctus nulla. Duis commodo velit at leo. Aliquam vulputate magna et leo. Nam vestibulum ullamcorper leo. Vestibulum condimentum rutrum mauris. Donec id mauris. Morbi molestie justo et pede. Vivamus eget turpis sed nisl cursus tempor. Cur-

16 16 modules over a principal ideal domain abitur mollis sapien condimentum nunc. In wisi nisl, malesuada at, dignissim sit amet, lobortis in, odio. Aenean consequat arcu a ante. Pellentesque porta elit sit amet orci. Etiam at turpis nec elit ultricies imperdiet. Nulla facilisi. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. Suspendisse viverra aliquam risus. Nullam pede justo, molestie nonummy, scelerisque eu, facilisis vel, arcu. Curabitur tellus magna, porttitor a, commodo a, commodo in, tortor. Donec interdum. Praesent scelerisque. Maecenas posuere sodales odio. Vivamus metus lacus, varius quis, imperdiet quis, rhoncus a, turpis. Etiam ligula arcu, elementum a, venenatis quis, sollicitudin sed, metus. Donec nunc pede, tincidunt in, venenatis vitae, faucibus vel, nibh. Pellentesque wisi. Nullam malesuada. Morbi ut tellus ut pede tincidunt porta. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Etiam congue neque id dolor. Donec et nisl at wisi luctus bibendum. Nam interdum tellus ac libero. Sed sem justo, laoreet vitae, fringilla at, adipiscing ut, nibh. Maecenas non sem quis tortor eleifend fermentum. Etiam id tortor ac mauris porta vulputate. Integer porta neque vitae massa. Maecenas tempus libero a libero posuere dictum. Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Aenean quis mauris sed elit commodo placerat. Class aptent taciti sociosqu ad litora torquent per conubia nostra, per inceptos hymenaeos. Vivamus rhoncus tincidunt libero. Etiam elementum pretium justo. Vivamus est. Morbi a tellus eget pede tristique commodo. Nulla nisl. Vestibulum sed nisl eu sapien cursus rutrum. Nulla non mauris vitae wisi posuere convallis. Sed eu nulla nec eros scelerisque pharetra. Nullam varius. Etiam dignissim elementum metus. Vestibulum faucibus, metus sit amet mattis rhoncus, sapien dui laoreet odio, nec ultricies nibh augue a enim. Fusce in ligula. Quisque at magna et nulla commodo consequat. Proin accumsan imperdiet sem. Nunc porta. Donec feugiat mi at justo. Phasellus facilisis ipsum quis ante. In ac elit eget ipsum pharetra faucibus. Maecenas viverra nulla in massa. Nulla ac nisl. Nullam urna nulla, ullamcorper in, interdum sit amet, gravida ut, risus. Aenean ac enim. In luctus. Phasellus eu quam vitae turpis viverra pellentesque. Duis feugiat felis ut enim. Phasellus pharetra, sem id porttitor sodales, magna nunc aliquet nibh, nec blandit nisl mauris at pede. Suspendisse risus risus, lobortis eget, semper at, imperdiet sit amet, quam. Quisque scelerisque dapibus nibh. Nam enim. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Nunc ut metus. Ut metus justo, auctor at, ultrices eu, sagittis ut, purus. Aliquam aliquam.

17 Bibliography

19 Index license, 2

Laboratory Journal Beginning John Smith

Laboratory Journal Beginning John Smith Laboratory Journal Beginning 30-05-2012 John Smith Master of Science Contents Contents Friday, 1 June 2012 4 1 Example experiment.............................. 4 1.1 Example sub-experiment.......................