Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises
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1 Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises Carlo Giunti INFN, Sezione di Torino, and Dipartimento di Fisica Teorica, Università di Torino ESOF, Torino, 4 July 2010 Shedding Light on Neutrinos Organiser: Francesca Di Lodovico C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
2 Neutrino Prehistory: Radioactivity 1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity of Uranium ( uranic rays ) (1903 Physics Nobel Prize) 1898: Marie Curie discovers radioactivity of Thorium and proposes the name radioactivity. Pierre and Marie Curie discover two new substances, Radium and Polonium, which are much more radioactive than Uranium. (1903 Physics Nobel Prize - Marie Curie: 1911 Chemistry Nobel Prize) 1899: Ernest Rutherford discovers that there are two types of radiation: alpha and beta. (1908 Chemistry Nobel Prize) 1900: Paul Villard discovers a third type of radiation coming from radium: gamma rays. 1902: Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy (1921 Chemistry Nobel Prize) formulate the atomic transformation theory of radioactivity: radioactive bodies contain unstable atoms which decay into a different atom emitting radiation: elements are not immutable! C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
3 1911: Ernest Rutherford formulates the nuclear model of the atom Nuclear notation: A Z Element Z atomic number (number of protons) A mass number (number of protons + neutrons) 7 3 Li number of electrons = number of protons A radioactive nucleus can decay by emitting: «: a Helium-4 nucleus (2 protons + 2 neutrons: 4 2 He) : an electron (e) : a high-energy photon ( ) C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
4 Neutrino Prehistory: Nuclear Beta Decay 1914: Chadwick discovers that electron energy spectrum in Nuclear Beta Decay of Radium B ( Pb; Plumbum, Piombo, Lead) is continuous. Example: [C.D. Ellis and W.A. Wooster, 1927] Bi Po+e Bi = Bismuth (Radium E) Po = Polonium Two-body final state =µ Energy-Momentum conservation implies that e has a unique energy value Niels Bohr proposed that energy may be conserved statistically, but energy conservation may be violated in individual decays C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
5 Neutrino Birth: Pauli - 4 December December 1930: Wolfgang Pauli sent a Public letter to the group of the Radioactives at the district society meeting in Tübingen Dear Radioactive Ladies and Gentlemen,...I have hit upon a desperate remedy to save...the law of conservation of energy. Namely, the possibility that there could exist in the nuclei electrically neutral particles, that I wish to call neutrons... The continuous -spectrum would then become understandable by the assumption that in -decay, a neutron is emitted in addition to the electron such that the sum of the energies of the neutron and electron is constant. Radium E decay: Bi Po+e + neutron What we call neutron was discovered by Chadwick in 1932 C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
6 Neutrino Naming and Interactions: Fermi 1933: Enrico Fermi proposes the name neutrino (italian: small neutron) at the Solvay Congress in Brussels. 1934: Enrico Fermi formulates A Theory of Beta Radiation which is the theory of Weak Interactions Neutrinos interact only with Weak Interactions =µ Very difficult to detect (maybe impossible; H. Bethe and R. Peierls, 1934) The neutrino mass much be much smaller than the electron mass. Maybe the neutrino is massless Fermi received the 1938 Physics Nobel Prize for his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
7 Basic decay: n p +e + e Nuclear decay example: 14 6 C 14 7 N+e + e ν e e 14 6 C 6p 8n n p 6 protons + 7 neutrons 14 7 N 7p 7n C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
8 Neutrinos are Real 1956: Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines detect electron antineutrinos ( e ) produced by the Savannah River nuclear plant e + 2 1H n+n+e + ( e +p n+e + ) [Cowan, Reines, Physical Review 107 (1957) 1609] Reines received the 1995 Physics Nobel Prize. Cowan died in C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
9 Parity Violation Parity is the symmetry of space inversion (mirror transformation) z z y x x right-handed frame mirror left-handed frame Parity was considered to be an exact symmetry of nature 1956: Lee and Yang understand that Parity can be violated in Weak Interactions (1957 Physics Nobel Prize) 1957: Wu et al. discover Parity violation in -decay of 60 Co y C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
10 Left-Handed Neutrinos 1957: Landau, Lee & Yang, Salam propose that neutrinos are massless and are only left-handed or right-handed v right-handed particle mirror v left-handed particle 1958: Goldhaber, Grodzins and Sunyar measure neutrino helicity: LEFT-HANDED C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
11 Standard Model Glashow (1961), Weinberg (1967) and Salam (1968) formulate the Standard Model of ElectroWeak Interactions (1979 Physics Nobel Prize) Neutrinos are left-handed: L Antineutrinos are right-handed: R Parity is violated: P L R R P L Particle-Antiparticle symmetry (Charge Conjugation) is violated: L C L C R R Neutrinos are massless! (Experimentally allowed until 1998) C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
12 Neutrino Proliferation 1960: Bruno Pontecorvo suggests that the neutrino produced in may be different from a neutrino produced in decay ( e ) It was known that e +n p +e Pontecorvo proposed to check if source propagation +n p +e detector 1962: Lederman, Schwartz and Steinberger perform the experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) =µ there is a new neutrino type: (1988 Physics Nobel Prize) C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
13 Two Generations Known elementary particles in 1970: 1 st Generation 2 nd Generation Quarks: u (up) d (down) s (strange) Leptons: e (electron neutrino) (muon neutrino) e (electron) (muon) 1970: Glashow, Iliopoulos and Maiani predict existence of charm quark (c) which completes the two-generations quark-lepton symmetry: 1 st Generation 2 nd Generation Charge Quarks: u c +2 3 d s 1 3 Leptons: e 0 e : charm quark discovered at BNL and SLAC: J = c c C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
14 CP Violation and Three Generations 1964: Christenson, Cronin, Fitch and Turlay discover unexpected violation of CP symmetry (Cronin and Fitch: 1980 Physics Nobel Prize) C: PARTICLE ANTIPARTICLE L L P: LEFT RIGHT L R CP: LEFT-HANDED P RIGHT-HANDED P L R 1973: Kobayashi and Maskawa understand that CP violation requires existence of third generation (2008 Physics Nobel Prize) 1975: discovery by Perl (1995 Physics Nobel Prize) 1977: b quark discovered at Fermilab 1995: t quark observed at Fermilab 2000: observed at Fermilab (DONUT) C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
15 t m [ev] d u e c s µ ν µ b τ ν τ ν e C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
16 1 st Generation 2 nd Generation 3 rd Generation Quarks: u c t d s b Leptons: e e quark and charged lepton mass scale ev ev ev 10 6 ev = g Mystery: Why neutrino mass in each generation is much smaller than other masses? Mystery: Why more than one generation with same properties and heavier masses? Mystery: Why three generations? C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
17 Three Neutrinos =µ Three Generations Cross-section (pb) CESR DORIS PEP KEKB PEP-II PETRA TRISTAN Γ Z = Z SLC LEP I e + e hadrons =e Γ Z + q =t W + W - LEP II Centre-of-mass energy (GeV) σ had [nb] [LEP, Phys. Rept. 427 (2006) 257, arxiv:hep-ex/ ] Γ Z q q +Γ inv N = ALEPH DELPHI L3 OPAL average measurements, error bars increased by factor 10 2ν 3ν 4ν E cm [GeV] Γ inv = N Γ Z C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
18 Solar Neutrinos Solar energy is generated by thermonuclear fusion reactions in the hot solar core (about K) Main reactions: pp chain 4p +2e 4 2 He+2 e +26 7MeV Solar neutrinos are the only direct messengers from the core of the Sun! Flux on Earth is about cm 2 s 1! C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
19 Solar Neutrino Detection 1957: Bruno Pontecorvo suggests to detect Solar Neutrinos using a large underground tank with Chlorine: e + 37 Cl 37 Ar+e 1964: John N. Bahcall finds that the cross-section of the Cl-Ar reaction is about 20 times larger than previous calculations 1964: Raymond Davis proposes the Homestake experiment (built in ) 1970: Davis and collaborators observe the first solar neutrino interactions in the Homestake detector (2002 Physics Nobel Prize) Solar neutrinos have been detected by the experiments: Homestake ( ), Kamiokande ( ) SAGE ( ), GALLEX/GNO ( ), Super-Kamiokande ( ), SNO ( ), Borexino ( ). C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
20 Solar Neutrino Problem Solar neutrino experiments found that the flux of e arriving on Earth is about 1/3 of that produced in the core of the Sun 2002: The SNO experiment found that the flux of e, and arriving on Earth is the same as the flux of e produced in the core of the Sun It is a proof of Neutrino Oscillations: e and e Neutrino Oscillations is a new phenomenon beyond the Standard Model: neutrino flavor transitions due to neutrino masses Oscillations is a phenomenon peculiar to neutrinos: charged leptons do not oscillate. Example: e is forbidden C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
21 Neutrino Oscillations 1957: Bruno Pontecorvo proposed Neutrino Oscillations in analogy with K 0 K 0 oscillations (Gell-Mann and Pais, 1955) Flavor Neutrinos: e,, Massive Neutrinos: 1, 2, 3 produced in Weak Interactions propagate from Source to Detector A Flavor Neutrino is a superposition of Massive Neutrinos e = U e1 1 +U e2 2 +U e3 3 = U 1 1 +U 2 2 +U 3 3 = U 1 1 +U 2 2 +U 3 3 U is the 3 3 Neutrino Mixing Matrix C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
22 (t = 0) = e = U e1 1 +U e2 2 +U e3 3 ν e source ν 2 ν 1 ν3 propagation ν µ detector (t 0) = U e1 e ie1t 1 +U e2 e ie2t 2 +U e3 e ie3t 3 = e at the detector there is a probability 0 to see the neutrino as a Neutrino Oscillations are Flavor Transitions e e e e e e C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
23 Neutrino Oscillations are due to interference of different phases of massive neutrinos Phases of massive neutrinos depend on distance =µ Oscillations depend on distance Pνe νµ distance Oscillations seen without doubt for the first time in the Super-Kamiokande experiment in 1998 C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
24 Massive Neutrinos A left-handed massive neutrino has a velocity v c It is possible to boost to a reference frame with V v In the new reference frame the neutrino has velocity v ¼ in opposite direction and spin in same direction =µ the neutrino is seen as right-handed v left-handed neutrino boost V > v v right-handed neutrino Since neutrinos are massive, there are both left-handed ( L ) and right-handed ( R ) neutrinos In Standard Model neutrinos are only left-handed =µ they are massless Neutrino Oscillations Massive Neutrinos =µ Standard Model must be extended: add R (Dirac neutrinos) or Majorana neutrinos C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
25 Dirac or Majorana Neutrinos? Dirac neutrinos are similar to quarks and charged leptons: for each particle there is a corresponding antiparticle connected by Charge Conjugation: u d C ū d C d e C ē C d s C s C t charge C t b C b C Particle and antiparticle have opposite charges =µ for charged particles particle and antiparticle are different (Dirac) For neutral particles particle and antiparticle can be different (Dirac) or equal (Majorana): only neutrinos can be Majorana! C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
26 1928: Paul Dirac formulates The Quantum Theory of the Electron (1933 Physics Nobel Prize) A Dirac neutrino is different from the corresponding antineutrino: = 1937: Ettore Majorana formulates the Teoria simmetrica dell elettrone e del positrone (Symmetrical theory of the electron and positron) A Majorana neutrino coincides with the corresponding antineutrino: = C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
27 Theorists favor Majorana neutrinos because it may explain smallness of neutrino masses: ½ ¾ Ù Ø ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ¾ ½¼ ½ ½¼ ¼ ½¼ ½ ½¼ ¾ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½¼ ½½ ½¼ ½¾ Ñ Î Many experiments are searching for Majorana neutrinos through 76 Neutrinoless Double- Decay. Example: 32 Ge Se+e +e Arsenic β As Germanium 76 32Ge β β β Selenium 76 34Se C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
28 Neutrinoless Double-Beta Decay n n e 32 protons + 42 neutrons p p e Ge 34Se 32p 44n ν e ν e 34p 42n 76 32Ge Se+e +e Possible only if e = e =µ Majorana! Many underground experiments are searching for Neutrinoless Double- Decay C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
29 Neutrino Mysteries: Conclusions Neutrino was invented by Pauli to solve the mystery of continuous energy spectrum in decay (the mystery lasted 16 years, from 1914 to 1930) Existence of neutrino was a mystery for 26 years, from 1930 to 1956, due to weak interactions Existence of neutrino masses was a mystery until 1998 For us it is a mystery if neutrinos coincide with antineutrinos or not (Majorana or Dirac) Neutrino Surprises: In Parity violation and neutrino left-handedness was a big surprise In 1970 Solar Neutrino Problem was a surprise to everybody except Bruno Pontecorvo, who predicted the effect due to Neutrino Oscillations in 1967 In 1998 the experimental proof of Neutrino Oscillations and the existence of neutrino masses was a surprise to most physicists, who believed the Standard Model Neutrino Promises: The physics of massive neutrinos is a promising window on the physics beyond the Standard Model More promises in the following talks C. Giunti Neutrino Mysteries, Surprises and Promises ESOF, Torino, 4 July
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