Finite element analysis of the sap flow measurement method with continuous needle heating in the sapwood of trees
|
|
- Horatio Jacobs
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII 241 Finite element analysis of the sap flow measurement method with continuous needle heating in the sapwood of trees M. rcala 1 & J. Čermák 2 1 Department of Wood Science, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic 2 Department of Forest Botany, Dendrology and Geobiocenology, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic Abstract Water flow represents the biggest energy flow in vegetation which also causes its magnificent climatic effect. From all the water taken up by plants, the majority is transpired, leading to leaf cooling (associated with the heat of vaporization) and only minor amounts of water are consumed by all the other processes (such as photosynthesis transport of assimilates, growth, etc.). he transpiration can be estimated through the measurement of sap flow rates in a tree stem. A series of measurement methods were developed for this purpose and they are mostly based on thermodynamic principles. his paper deals with the numerical analysis of the sap flow measurement method based on the continuous needle heating of a stem segment, the measurement of temperature differences using the thermocouples around the heated domain and sap flow calculation from the temperature differences. An appropriate model of heat transfer in the sapwood of trees is derived and solved. he model is based on a partial differential equation describing conductionconvection heat transfer during continuous linear heating and it is solved by the finite element method. Keywords: heat conduction-convection, sap flow measurement, finite element method, continuous needle heating. WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press doi: /h140221
2 242 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII 1 Introduction he measurement of water use by plants, especially by trees, is needed for many purposes in forestry, ecology, hydrology and microclimatology. his is why several methods for field measurement of the ascending water flow (sap flow) through a plant stem were developed (presented in chronological order): (1) heat pulse velocity [2, 5, 6, 8 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 25]; (2) trunk segment heat balance [3, 4, 23, 24]; (3) stem heat balance [1, 19, 20]; (4) heat dissipation [7]; and (5) heat field deformation [16 18]. hese methods are thermodynamic (in practice only thermodynamic methods for sap flow measurement are used) and are based on the same physical principle. A certain part of conductive woody tissue is heated and heat dissipation is assessed from temperature measurements [22]. here are two main groups of the thermodynamic methods (1) with continuous heating and (2) with heat pulses. he methods can be also divided into methods with linear, plate, and volume heating [22]. he most often the linear (needle) heating is used for both cases - continuous heating and heat pulses. his work addresses the problem of sap flow measurement with continuous needle heating inspired by Leyton [12, 13]. For large trees Leyton developed a double heated plate technique based on the exchange of heat between the moving sap and two permanently heated plate units (about 1 x 1 cm) inserted vertically, one above the other, along the stem radius in the sapwood. A battery of thermocouples was inserted within the heated units. he unit (containing resistance wires of 2 ohms) were heated continuously by a current about 200 ma and their difference in temperature ( upper - lower ) recorded. An extra thermocouple is incorporated in the lower unit and connected to a similar thermocouple in the stem, well below the unit, to allow the temperature difference between this unit and the cool sap ( cool ) to be recorded at the same time ( lower - cool ). he sap flow rate is calculated on the basis of following assumptions: Because the sap is somewhat warmer when it reaches the top unit than when it reached the lower unit, there will be less heat taken from the upper and its temperature will be higher than that of the lower unit. It can be shown by thermodynamic argument, that the ratio of temperatures given below is a sole function of the sap flux (Q w, m 3 /s) past the units Q w upper lower lower cool. heoretically, the Leyton method is simple and promising. he author found a good fit with data measured by weighing. A practical drawback of the method is that the heating plates are composite and thus vulnerable, which means that it may not be easy to incorporate them deep into xylem. he author sees the difficulty in establishing the exact area of sapwood around the units that is concerned with the exchange of heat; if that area is not known, the method must be calibrated before total sap flux in the stem can be determined. Instead of the double heated plate system we tested a double heated needle system as shown in Figure 1. WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
3 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII Governing equations his analysis was done using the numerical solution of a three-dimensional problem of heat transfer in the anisotropic structure of sapwood during sap flow measurement using continuous two-needle heating of a stem. he simulation is based on the steady-state conduction and convection of heat with respect to the orthotropic nature of wood. A matrix form of this model was derived and numerical simulations were performed. hese simulations were obtained by COMSOL Multiphysics with MALAB and are based on solving partial differential equation by the finite element method. he partial differential equation is the following [23, 24]: where c λ cwq w P, (1) t R L λ, Q Q Q Q 0 0 Q w wx wy wz w and denotes the vector differential operator / x, / y, / z. After substituting and modifications we get this form of the above mentioned partial differential equation: c R L cwqw P t x x y y z z z (2) where is temperature (K), Q w is sap flow density (kg m -2 s -1 ), λ is matrix of heat conductivity coefficients of fresh sapwood (W m -1 K -1 ), ρ is density of fresh sapwood (kg m -3 ), c is specific heat of fresh sapwood (J kg -1 K -1 ), c w is specific heat of water (J kg -1 K -1 ), P is heat power (W m -3 ). For steady-state the derivative of a temperature with respect to time is equal to zero and the previous equation is simplified into this form: and after modifications λ c Q P 0 (3) w w R L cq w w P0, (4) x x y y z z z where λ, λ R and λ L are thermal conductivities in the tangential, radial and longitudinal anatomical directions of wood. WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
4 244 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII wo-needle measuring system he analyzed measuring system is partially similar to Leyton and partially to HFD ones. It consisted of the two needle heaters (a resistance wire inserted in the stainless hypodermic needle 1.5 mm in outer diameter and inner 1.0 mm) situated in the sapwood below cambium (bark surface) and several thermocouples copper-constantan, with measuring points at different arrangements and distances from the heaters (the distance step is 5 mm see Figure 1). otal resistance of the heater wire is 60.5 (204.8 m -1 ) and applied direct current voltage is 4.24 (low heating) or 5.83 (high heating). his gives the power (U 2 /R) = or W per the entire needle, respectively. It means approximately a power of 6-10 W/m (Watt per meter needle length) according to operating length of the heating wire. he value of 8 W/m was used for numerical simulation in this work. We tested different combinations of temperature differences and the best relations with sap flow was found for the following three combinations (A, B, C Figure 1). Figure 1: Scheme of sensor situated in the middle of the sapwood. 3 Results and discussion In Figure 2 you can see the temperature field as the result of three-dimensional finite element model for heat conductivity λ = 0.3 W m -1 K -1 and sap flow density Q w = 0.03 kg m -2 s -1. We performed a numerical solution of the partial differential equation for different sap flow values and also for three different heat conductivities. We were observing temperature differences between heated and non-heated state in several points around the heated area and then observing the dependence of these temperature differences and their combinations on sap flow for three different values of heat conductivities. WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
5 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII 245 Figure 2: hree-dimensional illustration of temperature field for heat conductivity λ = 0.3 W m -1 K -1 and sap flow density Q w = 0.03 kg m -2 s -1. Figure 3: Numerical simulations of temperature field for heat conductivity λ = 0.3 W m -1 K -1 and for different values of sap flow Q w (0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08) in plane of sensor (in the middle of the sapwood). Note: read from the left to the right and from the top to the bottom for individual Qw. WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
6 246 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII We compared dependences of several combinations of temperature differences on sap flow and we are presenting the results of the best three combinations (A, B, C see Figure 1). In combination A, the result was the best one of the three good chosen combinations and thus we tried to find out the formula that could describe the relation between temperature differences, heat conductivities and sap flow. Figure 4: Dependence of combination of temperature differences (A) on sap flow density (left panel) and dependence of sap flow density on the combination of temperature differences (A) (right panel). We recommend the following formula for sap flow calculation: where 68 b 810 w Q a e c, (5) , b , c a. he derived formula (5) was verified by the simulations. he result of this step is presented at the graph (Figure 5). he graph shows that the results from the formula are consistent across whole testing range of sap flux densities for all chosen values of heat conductivity. WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
7 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII 247 Figure 5: Relation between input and output (from formula (5)) sap flow density for three different heat conductivities of wood. No formula was searched for in the remaining two combinations and only graphs were created (Figure 6). he graphs show the dependence between temperature differences and the transpiration flow for three different wood heat conductivities. Figure 6: Dependence of combination of temperature differences (B) on sap flow density (upper, left panel) and dependence of sap flow density on the combination of temperature differences (B) (upper, right panel). Dependence of combination of temperature differences (C) on sap flow density (lower, left panel) and dependence of sap flow density on the combination of temperature differences (C) (lower, right panel). WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
8 248 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII 4 Conclusion his paper deals with the mathematical modelling and the numerical simulation of the temperature field around two heated needles inserted into sapwood of a tree stem. he resulting temperature field is dependent on conduction and convection of heat. Heat convection is caused by sap flow that cools and also deforms the resulting temperature field. he aims of this paper are to show the dependence of the measurable temperature differences by thermocouples on different values of sap flow during two-needle heating and to discuss the usage of this system for sap flow measurement at trees. Acknowledgements he work was supported by OP Education for Competitiveness (European Social Fund and the state budget of the Czech Republic) CZ.1.07/2.3.00/ Postdocs in Biological Sciences at MENDELU. References [1] Baker, J.M. & Van Bavel, C.H.M., Measurement of mass flow of water in stems of herbaceous plants. Plant Cell Environ, 10, pp , [2] Caspari, H.W., Green, S.R. & Edwards, W.R.N., ranspiration of well watered and water-stressed Asian pear trees as determined by lysimetry, heat-pulse and estimated by a Penman Monteith model. Agric For Meteorol, 67, pp , [3] Čermák, J., Deml, M. & Penka, M., A new method of sap flow rate determination in trees. Biol. Plant. Praha, 15(3), pp , [4] Čermák, J. & Deml, M., Method of water transport measurements in woody species, especially in adult trees (in Czech). Patent (Certification of authorship) CSFR, No (P.V ), [5] Cohen, Y., Fuchs, M. & Green, G.C., Improvement of the heat pulse method for determining sap flow in trees. Plant Cell Environ, 4, pp , [6] Cohen, Y., hermoelectric methods for measurement of sap flow in plants. In: Standhill G (ed) Advances in bioclimatology. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp [7] Granier, A., Une nouvelle methode pour la mesure dy flux de seve brute dans le trons des arbres. Ann Sci For, 22, pp , [8] Green, S., Clothier, B., Jardine, B., Greven, M., Neal, S., Caspari, H. & Dichi, B., Measurements of sap flow in grape wines. In: ognetti R, Raschi A (eds) Proceedings of 5th International Workshop Plant Water Relations and Sap Flux Measurements, Firenze, Italy, Nov 9-10, 2000, pp , [9] Green, S.R. & Clothier, B.E., Water use of kiwifruit vines and apple trees by the heat-pulse technique. J Exp Bot, 39, pp WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
9 Advanced Computational Methods and Experiments in Heat ransfer XIII 249 [10] Huber, B., & Schmid,t E., Weitere thermoelektrische Untersuchungen uber den ranspirationsstrom der Baume. harandt Forstl Jahrb, 87, pp , [11] Huber, B., Beobachtung und Messung pflanzlicher Saftstrome. Ber Dtsch Bot Ges, 50, pp , [12] Leyton, L., Continuous recording of sap flow rates in tree stems. IUFRO Meetings, , [13] Leyton, L., Remove from marked records problems and techniques in measuring transpiration from trees. Physiology of tree crops, , [14] Marshall, D.C., Measurements of sap flow in conifers by heat transport. Plant Physiol, 33, pp , [15] Morikawa, Y., he heat pulse method and apparatus for measuring sap flow in woody plants. Jpn For Soc, 54, pp , [16] Nadezhdina, N., Čermák, J. & Nadezhdin V., Heat field deformation method for sap flow measurements. Proc. 4th. International Workshop on Measuring Sap Flow in Intact Plants. Židlochovice, Czech Republic, Oct. 3-5, IUFRO Publications. Publishing house of Mendel Univ.Brno [17] Nadezhdina, N. & Čermá, J., he technique and instrumentation for estimation the sap flow rate in plants. Patent No (PV ) [18] Nadezhdina, N., Vandegehuchte, M.W. & Steppe, K., Sap flux density measurements based on the heat field deformation method. rees, 26 (5), pp , [19] Sakuratani,., A heat balance method for measuring water flux in the stem of intact plants. J Agric Meteorol (Jpn), 37, pp. 9-17, [20] Sakuratani,., Improvement of the probe for measuring water flow rate in intact plants with the stem heat balance method. J Agric Meteorol (Jpn), 40, pp , [21] Swanson, R.H., Sampling for direct transpiration estimates. J Hydrol (Dunedin), 9, pp , [22] atarinov, F.A., Kučera, J. & Cienciala, E., he analysis of physical background of tree sap flow measurements based on thermal methods. Measurements Science and echnology, 16, pp , [23] rcala, M. & Čermák, J., Improvement of the trunk heat balance method including measurements of zero and reverse sap flows. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, , pp , [24] rcala M., Čermák J Nonlinear finite element analysis of thermal inertia in heat-balance sap flow measurement. International Journal of hermal Sciences, 76, pp , [25] Vandegehuchte, M.W. & Steppe, K., Sap flux density measurement methods: working principles and applicability. Functional Plant Biology, 40(3), pp , WI ransactions on Engineering Sciences, Vol 83, 2014 WI Press
Measurement of Sap Flow Dynamics Through the Tomato Peduncle Using a Non-invasive Sensor Based on the Heat Field Deformation Method
Measurement of Sap Flow Dynamics Through the Tomato Peduncle Using a Non-invasive Sensor Based on the Heat Field Deformation Method Jochen Hanssens, Tom De Swaef and Kathy Steppe Laboratory of Plant Ecology,
More information6 Heat Ratio Method Theory
6 Heat Ratio Method Theory The Heat Ratio Method (HRM) can measure both sap velocity (Vs) and volumetric water flow in xylem tissue using a short pulse of heat as a tracer. It is a modification of the
More informationMeasurement of sap flow in roots of woody plants: a commentary
Tree Physiology 20, 909 913 2000 Heron Publishing Victoria, Canada Measurement of sap flow in roots of woody plants: a commentary STEPHEN S. O. BURGESS 1,2, MARK A. ADAMS 1 and TIM M. BLEBY 1 1 Department
More informationBotany Physiology. Due Date Code Period Earned Points
Botany Physiology Name C/By Due Date Code Period Earned Points Bot Phys 5N5 Stem Forms Bot Phys 5-05 Identify the major forms of stems in plants I. Identify the major forms of stems in plants A. internal
More informationTree Physiology. Sara Rose
Tree Physiology Sara Rose What is a Tree? U.S. Forest Service Woody plants that have well-developed stems and that usually are more than 12 feet tall at maturity. Merriam-Webster A woody perennial plant
More informationAcoustic Emission Technique for the Detection of Abnormal Cavitation in Pine Trees Infected with Pine Wilt Disease
Acoustic Emission Technique for the Detection of Abnormal Cavitation in Pine Trees Infected with Pine Wilt Disease Keiko Kuroda (Kansai Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute,
More informationVARIATION IN THE SIZE OF RAY PITS OF CONIFERS.*
VARIATION IN THE SIZE OF RAY PITS OF CONIFERS.* FOREST B. H. BROWN. Since Haeckel proposed the word Ecology in 88, there has been an ever growing interest in the influence which environmental factors may
More informationSap flow technique as a tool for irrigation schedule in grapevines: control of the plant physiological status
Sap flow technique as a tool for irrigation schedule in grapevines: control of the plant physiological status Pons P.J., Truyols M., Flexas J., Cifre J., Medrano H., Ribas-Carbó M. in López-Francos A.
More informationRadial variation in sap flow in five laurel forest tree species in Tenerife, Canary Islands
Tree Physiology 20, 1149 1156 2000 Heron Publishing Victoria, Canada Radial variation in sap flow in five laurel forest tree species in Tenerife, Canary Islands M. SOLEDAD JIMÉNEZ, 1 NADEZHDA NADEZHDINA,
More informationTree Biology. Keith Wood Colorado State Forest Service. (Modified for CMVFS 9/13/16 Donna Davis)
Tree Biology This session will cover tree anatomy (structure) and tree physiology (function) including how a tree is put together, how it grows in its environment and Compartmentalization of Decay in Trees
More informationShort Term Scientific Mission: Dendrometers and LVDT-sensors
STSM: Dendrometers and LVDT-sensors Short Term Scientific Mission: Dendrometers and LVDT-sensors Selecting the one that truly captures the heartbeat of the tree COST STSM Reference Number: COST-STSM-ECOST-STSM-FP116-14714-4722
More informationExperiment 1. Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal (Brass) Bar
Experiment 1 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal (Brass) Bar Introduction: Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat, determined by the rate of heat flow
More informationObjective: To teach students the basic anatomy of trees and how different cells function to promote tree survival.
Objective: To teach students the basic anatomy of trees and how different cells function to promote tree survival. Materials: Paper Markers/Crayons Tree Anatomy Labels Tree Cookie examples White Paper
More informationSTEMS Anytime you use something made of wood, you re using something made from the stem of a plant. Stems are linear structures with attached leaves
STEMS OUTLINE External Form of a Woody Twig Stem Origin and Development Stem Tissue Patterns Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Stems Woody Dicotyledonous Stems Monocotyledonous Stems Specialized Stems Wood and
More informationLesson 2. Objectives: ocus: Subjects: Vocabulary: VOCABULARY
Lesson 2 The Nature of Trees Objectives: 1. To understand what parts make up a tree. 2. To understand what function each part serves. 3. To understand the relationship between the function and parts of
More informationName: Plant stems and leaves (p. 1 of )
Name: Plant stems and leaves (p. 1 of ) Introduction: Plants have a variety of configurations but the same basic structures. The three main parts of a plant are the roots, stems, and leaves. The tracheids
More informationMaster Gardeners. Botany for the Gardener. Developed by Steve Dubik.
Master Gardeners Botany for the Gardener Developed by Steve Dubik sdubik@umd.edu Steve.dubik@montgomerycollege.edu 1 Plant cell Basic building block of life. 2 Plant cell - key points Cell membrane Cytoplasm
More informationThermodynamics 1. Lecture 7: Heat transfer Open systems. Bendiks Jan Boersma Thijs Vlugt Theo Woudstra. March 1, 2010.
hermodynamics Lecture 7: Heat transfer Open systems Bendiks Jan Boersma hijs Vlugt heo Woudstra March, 00 Energy echnology Summary lecture 6 Poisson relation efficiency of a two-stroke IC engine (Otto
More informationThe Plant Kingdom If you were to walk around a forest, what would you see? Most things that you would probably name are plants.
INTRODUCTION TO PLANTS The Plant Kingdom If you were to walk around a forest, what would you see? Most things that you would probably name are plants. Plants are abundant in almost every environment that
More informationWSU and UI Master Gardeners March 1, 2016 Philip Shinn
WSU and UI Master Gardeners March 1, 2016 Philip Shinn What is a Woody Plant? Tree Biology CODIT Planting & Pruning Tree Triage C 9 H 10 O 2 Strengthens cell walls in Xylem Sequesters carbon 30% of
More informationA study on sap flow rate of Mallotusphilippensis and its relationship with environmental factors
Journal 104 of Agrometeorology Effect 19 (2) of environmental : 104-109 (June factors 2017) on sap flow rate of Mallotusphilippensis June 2017 A study on sap flow rate of Mallotusphilippensis and its relationship
More informationCurrent and Resistance
PHYS102 Previous Exam Problems CHAPTER 26 Current and Resistance Charge, current, and current density Ohm s law Resistance Power Resistance & temperature 1. A current of 0.300 A is passed through a lamp
More informationTP01 Thermal Properties Sensor
TP01 Thermal Properties Sensor USER MANUAL INCLUDING THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY AND VOLUMETRIC HEAT CAPACITY MEASUREMENT TP01 Manual version 0608 Edited & Copyright by: Hukseflux Thermal Sensors http://www.hukseflux.com
More informationBasic Tree Biology a quick look
Basic Tree Biology a quick look Jeff Ward, Chief Scientist Forestry and Horticulture Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station Objectives What are trees cool facts What do trees need How do trees grow
More informationPhys2120 Spring 2017 Practice Exam 1. Chapters Name
Name 1. Two point charges are 4 cm apart. They are moved to a new separation of 2 cm. By what factor does the resulting mutual force between them change? 2. An uncharged conductor is supported by an insulating
More informationRoots and leaves together are sufficient to take up all essential resources, so why make stems?
STEMS Roots and leaves together are sufficient to take up all essential resources, so why make stems? Stem functions 1. Support leaves 2. Conductance (connect root and leaf vasculature) 3. Storage (some
More informationEVAPORATION GEOG 405. Tom Giambelluca
EVAPORATION GEOG 405 Tom Giambelluca 1 Evaporation The change of phase of water from liquid to gas; the net vertical transport of water vapor from the surface to the atmosphere. 2 Definitions Evaporation:
More informationWood Anatomy Lab What is wood? The lateral meristems Cell types Vessels Tracheids
Wood Anatomy Lab Objectives of the Lab: 1) Learn to recognize major cell types and features of wood including: tracheids vessels rays axial parenchyma pits tyloses resin canals 2) Look at wood in three
More informationPotential of (portable) NMR and MRI for plant phenotyping. Henk Van As
Potential of (portable) NMR and MRI for plant phenotyping Henk Van As NMR/MRI and plant phenotyping Non-invasive NMR and MRI sensors to measure plant performance and uncover genetic determinants of enhanced
More informationTREE WATER USE PATTERNS ARE MAINLY DRIVEN BY ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES AND TREE STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS IN HUMID TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS HARDWOOD FORESTS
TREE WATER USE PATTERNS ARE MAINLY DRIVEN BY ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES AND TREE STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS IN HUMID TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS HARDWOOD FORESTS Virginia Hernandez-Santana, Heidi Asbjornsen Presented
More informationChapter 1: 20, 23, 35, 41, 68, 71, 76, 77, 80, 85, 90, 101, 103 and 104.
Chapter 1: 0, 3, 35, 1, 68, 71, 76, 77, 80, 85, 90, 101, 103 and 10. 1-0 The filament of a 150 W incandescent lamp is 5 cm long and has a diameter of 0.5 mm. The heat flux on the surface of the filament,
More informationTest Review Electricity
Name: Date: 1. An operating television set draws 0.71 ampere of current when connected to a 120-volt outlet. Calculate the time it takes the television to consume 3.0 10 5 joules of electric energy. [Show
More informationName Date Block. Plant Structures
Name Date Block What are the Functions of Roots, Stems, and Leaves? Plant Structures Each part of a plant plays an important role in its structure and function. Roots, stems, and leaves are just three
More informationThe Anatomy of a Giant
The Anatomy of a Giant ACTIVITY SUMMARY Students learn the basic anatomy of a redwood tree in the classroom. They then study the anatomy of a real redwood tree. CONCEPTS TO BE LEARNED 1. Plants such as
More informationA Simple Method for Thermal Characterization of Low-Melting Temperature Phase Change Materials (PCMs)
A Simple Method for hermal Characterization of Low-Melting emperature Phase Change Materials (PCMs) L. Salvador *, J. Hastanin, F. Novello, A. Orléans 3 and F. Sente 3 Centre Spatial de Liège, Belgium,
More informationA Comparison of Figureof Merit for Some Common ThermocouplesintheHighTemperatureRange
Global Journal of Researches in Engineering Electrical and Electronics Engineering Volume 13 Issue 11 Version 1.0 Year 2013 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global
More informationEvapotranspiration. Here, liquid water on surfaces or in the very thin surface layer of the soil that evaporates directly to the atmosphere
Evapotranspiration Evaporation (E): In general, the change of state from liquid to gas Here, liquid water on surfaces or in the very thin surface layer of the soil that evaporates directly to the atmosphere
More informationINVERSE ALGORITHMS FOR TIME DEPENDENT BOUNDARY RECONSTRUCTION OF MULTIDIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION MODEL
INVERSE ALGORITHMS FOR TIME DEPENDENT BOUNDARY RECONSTRUCTION OF MULTIDIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION MODEL M. Pohanka, J. Horský * Summary: Comprehensive quantitative information on the heat transfer phenomena
More information4. Heat and Thermal Energy
4. Heat and Thermal Energy Introduction The purpose of this experiment is to study cooling and heating by conduction, convection, and radiation. Thermal energy is the energy of random molecular motion.
More informationSecondary growth in stems
Secondary growth in stems Secondary growth Some of the meristematic cells in plants with secondary growth keep their meristematic state and become cells of the cambium. The addition of secondary vascular
More informationExam 2 Solutions. = /10 = / = /m 3, where the factor of
PHY049 Fall 007 Prof. Yasu Takano Prof. Paul Avery Oct. 17, 007 Exam Solutions 1. (WebAssign 6.6) A current of 1.5 A flows in a copper wire with radius 1.5 mm. If the current is uniform, what is the electron
More informationPlant Anatomy and Tissue Structures
Plant Anatomy and Tissue Structures The Two Major Plant Systems Reproductive shoot (flower) Terminal bud Node Internode Angiosperm plants have threse major organs: Roots Stems Leaves & Flowers Terminal
More informationThermal sensitive foils in physics experiments
Thermal sensitive foils in physics experiments Zdeněk Bochníček, Pavel Konečný Department of Physical Electronics, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic. E-mail:
More informationNOTES ON GINKGO BILOBA'
NOTES ON GINKGO BILOBA' WALTER WV. TUPPER (WITH PLATE xx) Among the gymnosperms, one of the groups most interesting from a morphological standpoint is the Ginkgoales, the only living representative of
More informationCAMBIUM, meristem, heartwood, and lenticel are
Examining the Structures of a Tree CAMBIUM, meristem, heartwood, and lenticel are some terms that may be new to you. These terms are used to describe various tree structures. Not surprisingly, many terms
More informationGlobal Biogeography. Natural Vegetation. Structure and Life-Forms of Plants. Terrestrial Ecosystems-The Biomes
Global Biogeography Natural Vegetation Structure and Life-Forms of Plants Terrestrial Ecosystems-The Biomes Natural Vegetation natural vegetation is the plant cover that develops with little or no human
More informationStems and Transport in Vascular Plants. Herbaceous Stems. Herbaceous Dicot Stem 3/12/2012. Chapter 34. Basic Tissues in Herbaceous Stems.
Bud scale Terminal bud Stems and Transport in Plants One year's growth Terminal bud scale scars Axillary bud Leaf scar Node Internode Node Chapter 34 Lenticels Terminal bud scale scars Bundle scars A Woody
More informationEffects of Sun-Blotch on the Anatomy of the Avocado Stem
California Avocado Association 1935 Yearbook 20: 125-129 Effects of Sun-Blotch on the Anatomy of the Avocado Stem Charles A. Schroeder Because of the comparatively recent discovery of the avocado disease
More informationLecture notes: Interception and evapotranspiration
Lecture notes: Interception and evapotranspiration I. Vegetation canopy interception (I c ): Portion of incident precipitation (P) physically intercepted, stored and ultimately evaporated from vegetation
More informationStudents will have practical experience of how to set up an experiment, obtain results and interpret those results.
Science Unit: Lesson 11: Temperate Forest The Way a Tree Works School year: 2006/2007 Developed for: Developed by: Grade level: Duration of lesson: Notes: Lord Selkirk Annex Elementary School, Vancouver
More informationRadiation transfer in vegetation canopies Part I plants architecture
Radiation Transfer in Environmental Science with emphasis on aquatic and vegetation canopy medias Radiation transfer in vegetation canopies Part I plants architecture Autumn 2008 Prof. Emmanuel Boss, Dr.
More informationStems BI 103: Plant & Animal A & P. Learning Objectives
Stems BI 103: Plant & Animal A & P Outline: 1. Stems: monocots vs dicots--handout 2. Woody plant growth 3. Discussion problems 4. Monocots & soutside Learning Objectives What are the differences between
More informationStudy and Characterization of the Limiting Thermal Phenomena in Low-Speed Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators for Wind Energy
1 Study and Characterization of the Limiting Thermal Phenomena in Low-Speed Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators for Wind Energy Mariana Cavique, Student, DEEC/AC Energia, João F.P. Fernandes, LAETA/IDMEC,
More informationElectrical measurements:
Electrical measurements: Last time we saw that we could define circuits though: current, voltage and impedance. Where the impedance of an element related the voltage to the current: This is Ohm s law.
More informationDepartment of Mechanical Engineering ME 96. Free and Forced Convection Experiment. Revised: 25 April Introduction
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Department of Mechanical Engineering ME 96 Free and Forced Convection Experiment Revised: 25 April 1994 1. Introduction The term forced convection refers to heat transport
More informationAxial profiles of heat transfer coefficients in a liquid film evaporator
Axial profiles of heat transfer coefficients in a liquid film evaporator Pavel Timár, Ján Stopka, Vladimír Báleš Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical and Food Technology,
More informationFinite-Element Evaluation of Thermal Response Tests Performed on U-Tube Borehole Heat Exchangers
Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Conference 2008 Hannover Finite-Element Evaluation of Thermal Response Tests Performed on U-Tube Borehole Heat Exchangers E. Zanchini,1 and T. Terlizzese 1 1
More informationPlants. Plant Form and Function. Tissue Systems 6/4/2012. Chapter 17. Herbaceous (nonwoody) Woody. Flowering plants can be divided into two groups:
Monocots Dicots 6/4/2012 Plants Plant Form and Function Chapter 17 Herbaceous (nonwoody) In temperate climates, aerial parts die back Woody In temperate climates, aerial parts persist The Plant Body Functions
More informationDevelopment of Tetrapolar Conductivity Cell for Liquid Measurement Application
Sensors & Transducers 2014 by IFSA Publishing, S. L. http://www.sensorsportal.com Development of Tetrapolar Conductivity Cell for Liquid Measurement Application 1 M. N. Anas, 2 M. N. Ahmad 1 UniMAP, School
More informationASSESSMENT OF WATER STATUS IN TREES FROM MEASUREMENTS OF STOMATAL CONDUCTANCE AND WATER POTENTIAL
No. 1 159 ASSESSMENT OF WATER STATUS IN TREES FROM MEASUREMENTS OF STOMATAL CONDUCTANCE AND WATER POTENTIAL DAVID WHITEHEAD Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand (Received for publication 24
More informationWhy Sample Vegetation? Vegetation Sampling. Vegetation Sampling Metrics. Enumeration and Density
Vegetation Sampling Key concepts Types of vegetation sampling Methods of vegetation sampling Definitions Density Cover Growth Vigor Utilization Transect Macroplot Quadrat Physiological status Why Sample
More informationPin Fin Lab Report Example. Names. ME331 Lab
Pin Fin Lab Report Example Names ME331 Lab 04/12/2017 1. Abstract The purposes of this experiment are to determine pin fin effectiveness and convective heat transfer coefficients for free and forced convection
More informationCHAPTER TRANSPORT
CHAPTER 2 2.4 TRANSPORT Uptake of CO2 FOCUS: Uptake and transport of water and mineral salts Transport of organic substances Physical forces drive the transport of materials in plants over a range of distances
More informationKapitza resistance and thermal conductivity of Mylar at superfluid helium temperature
α κ κ Kapitza resistance and thermal conductivity of Mylar at superfluid helium temperature G. Hattenberger, S. Carré, F.-P. Juster, B. Baudouy CEA-Saclay, DSM/DAPNIA/SACM, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex,
More informationGas exchange and water relations of evergreen and deciduous tropical savanna trees
Gas exchange and water relations of evergreen and deciduous tropical savanna trees G. Goldstein, F. Rada, P. Rundel, A. Azocar, A. Orozco To cite this version: G. Goldstein, F. Rada, P. Rundel, A. Azocar,
More informationA free web support in Education. Internal resistance of the battery, r = 3 Ω. Maximum current drawn from the battery = I According to Ohm s law,
Exercises Question 3.1: The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4Ω, what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery? Answer 3.1: Emf
More informationSelf Field Measurements by Hall Sensors on the SeCRETS Long Sample CICCs in SULTAN
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 12, NO. 1, MARCH 2002 1667 Self Field Measurements by Hall Sensors on the SeCRETS Long Sample CICCs in SULTAN Yu. A. Ilyin, A. Nijhuis, H. H. J. ten
More informationRecommended Resources: The following resources may be useful in teaching this
Unit B: Tree Growth and Development Lesson 2: Understanding the Growth and Decline of Forest Trees Student Learning Objectives: Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the following
More informationScientific Identification & Classification
Scientific Identification & Classification Plant Parts Leaves Stems Roots Flowers Leaves-External Petiole-leaf stalk or part that connects the leaf to the stem Blade-the large, flat part of the leaf Midrib-the
More informationStructural Mechanics of Cooling Catheters
Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Conference 2008 Boston Structural Mechanics of Cooling Catheters Pavelchak, Matthew, Joe Urcinas, and Merrill, Thomas *. Rowan University *Corresponding author:
More informationThe Electrodynamics of a Pair of PV Modules with Connected Building Resistance
Proc. of the 3rd IASME/WSEAS Int. Conf. on Energy, Environment, Ecosystems and Sustainable Development, Agios Nikolaos, Greece, July 24-26, 2007 563 he Electrodynamics of a Pair of s with Connected Building
More informationOp#cal Study of Plant System Poten#al
Op#cal Study of Plant System Poten#al Douglas Janssen 1, Mohammad Islam 2, David Chao 3, Jerry Gu 4, David Eisen 2, Fow-Sen Choa 2 1 Greater Grace Christian Academy, 6063 Moravia Park Drive, Baltimore,
More informationUniversity of Rome Tor Vergata
University of Rome Tor Vergata Faculty of Engineering Department of Industrial Engineering THERMODYNAMIC AND HEAT TRANSFER HEAT TRANSFER dr. G. Bovesecchi gianluigi.bovesecchi@gmail.com 06-7259-727 (7249)
More informationTemperature and light as ecological factors for plants
PLB/EVE 117 Plant Ecology Fall 2005 1 Temperature and light as ecological factors for plants I. Temperature as an environmental factor A. The influence of temperature as an environmental factor is pervasive
More informationAnalysis of Thermal Behavior of High Frequency Transformers Using Finite Element Method
J. Electromagnetic Analysis & Applications, 010,, 67-63 doi:10.436/emaa.010.1108 ublished Online November 010 (http://www.scirp.org/ournal/emaa) Analysis of Thermal Behavior of High Frequency Transformers
More informationIntroduction to Blackbody Sources
Introduction to s This section contains dedicated blackbody sources for low uncertainty calibration of infrared thermometers. A range of portable primary blackbody sources combine high emissivity with
More informationPlant Structure. Lab Exercise 24. Objectives. Introduction
Lab Exercise Plant Structure Objectives - Be able to identify plant organs and give their functions. - Learn distinguishing characteristics between monocot and dicot plants. - Understand the anatomy of
More informationA Numerical Investigation on Active Chilled Beams for Indoor Air Conditioning
Excerpt from the Proceedings of the COMSOL Conference 2008 Hannover A Numerical Investigation on Active Chilled Beams for Indoor Air Conditioning Cammarata G., Petrone G. * Department of Industrial and
More informationPOTASSIUM IN PLANT GROWTH AND YIELD. by Ismail Cakmak Sabanci University Istanbul, Turkey
POTASSIUM IN PLANT GROWTH AND YIELD by Ismail Cakmak Sabanci University Istanbul, Turkey Low K High K High K Low K Low K High K Low K High K Control K Deficiency Cakmak et al., 1994, J. Experimental Bot.
More informationBASIC THERMAL PARAMETERS OF SELECTED FOODS AND FOOD RAW MATERIALS
ACTA UNIVERSITATIS AGRICULTURAE ET SILVICULTURAE MENDELIANAE BRUNENSIS Volume 65 42 Number 2, 2017 https://doi.org/10.11118/actaun201765020391 BASIC THERMAL PARAMETERS OF SELECTED FOODS AND FOOD RAW MATERIALS
More informationDescription of 3-PG. Peter Sands. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products and CRC for Sustainable Production Forestry
Description of 3-PG Peter Sands CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products and CRC for Sustainable Production Forestry 1 What is 3-PG? Simple, process-based model to predict growth and development of even-aged
More information) was measured using net radiometers. Soil heat flux (Q g
Paper 4 of 18 Determination of Surface Fluxes Using a Bowen Ratio System V. C. K. Kakane* and E. K. Agyei Physics Department, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana * Corresponding author, Email: vckakane@ug.edu.gh
More informationBASIC RESEARCH OF THERMAL TRANSFER SIMULATIONS
27TH DAAAM INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON INTELLIGENT MANUFACTURING AND AUTOMATION DOI:.257/27th.daaam.proceedings.85 BASIC RESEARCH OF THERMAL TRANSFER SIMULATIONS Václav Marek This Publication has to be
More informationSECTION 1 - WHAT IS A BTU METER? BTU's = Flow x ΔT Any ISTEC BTU Meter System consists of the following main components:
SECTION 1 - WHAT IS A BTU METER? ISTEC BTU Meters measure energy usage by multiplying flow rate and temperature difference. As the water (or other liquid) passes through these lines, the multi-wing turbine
More informationClass XI Chapter 6 Anatomy of Flowering Plants Biology
Class XI Chapter 6 Anatomy of Flowering Plants Biology Question 1: State the location and function of different types of meristem. Meristems are specialised regions of plant growth. The meristems mark
More informationPlant Tissues and Organs. Topic 13 Plant Science Subtopics , ,
Plant Tissues and Organs Topic 13 Plant Science Subtopics 13.1.2, 13.1.3, 13.1.4 Objectives: List and describe the major plant organs their structure and function List and describe the major types of plant
More informationBotany Basics. Botany is...
Botany Basics John Punches Oregon State University Botany is... The study of plants. 1 Plants in our Ecosystem Capture sun s energy Food source Replenish atmospheric oxygen Participate in water cycle Moderate
More informationMeasurement of heat flux density and heat transfer coefficient
archives of thermodynamics Vol. 31(2010), No. 3, 3 18 DOI: 10.2478/v10173-010-0011-z Measurement of heat flux density and heat transfer coefficient DAWID TALER 1 SŁAWOMIR GRĄDZIEL 2 JAN TALER 2 1 AGH University
More informationMEASUREMENT OF WBGT INDEX IN AXIAL FLOW AS THE MAIN THERMODYNAMIC PARAMETERS VARY G.
MEASUREMENT OF WBGT INDEX IN AXIAL FLOW AS THE MAIN THERMODYNAMIC PARAMETERS VARY G. Buonanno, M. Dell'Isola, A. Frattolillo and L. Vanoli Di.M.S.A.T. - Università di Cassino via Di Biasio 43-03043 Cassino
More informationInfrared Images and Land Cover in the Past
Ekológia (Bratislava) Vol. 32, No. 4, p. 383 387, 2013 doi:10.2478/eko-2013-0036 Infrared Images and Land Cover in the Past Václav Ždímal Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic;
More informationAnalysis of external and internal mass transfer resistance at steady state diffusion experiments on small clear wood specimens
COST FP0802 Workshop Experimental and Computational Micro-Characterization Techniques in Wood Mechanics, Vila Real, 27 28 April 2011 Analysis of external and internal mass transfer resistance at steady
More informationAvocado Tree Physiology Understanding the Basis of Productivity
Avocado Tree Physiology Understanding the Basis of Productivity R. L. Heath, M. L. Arpaia UC, Riverside M. V. Mickelbart Purdue University Raw Materials Labor Product Light Carbon Dioxide Temperature Water
More informationEffect of Magnetic and Electric Field Dynamics on Copper-Iron Thermocouple Performance
Asian Journal of Chemistry Vol. 21, No. 10 (2009), S056-061 Effect of Magnetic and Electric Field Dynamics on Copper-Iron Thermocouple Performance JASPAL SINGH and S.S. VERMA Department of Physics, S.L.I.E.T.,
More informationApparatus to measure high-temperature thermal conductivity and thermoelectric power of small specimens
Apparatus to measure high-temperature thermal conductivity and thermoelectric power of small specimens T. Dasgupta and A. M. Umarji a Materials Research Centre, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore-560012,
More informationUnderstanding how vines deal with heat and water deficit
Understanding how vines deal with heat and water deficit Everard Edwards CSIRO AGRICULTURE & FOOD How hot is too hot? Cell death will occur in any vine tissue beyond a threshold (lethal) temperature cell
More informationThe three principal organs of seed plants are roots, stems, and leaves.
23 1 Specialized Tissues in Plants Seed Plant Structure The three principal organs of seed plants are roots, stems, and leaves. 1 of 34 23 1 Specialized Tissues in Plants Seed Plant Structure Roots: absorb
More informationin angiosperms 10/29/08 Roots take up water via roots Large surface area is needed Roots branch and have root hairs Cortex structure also helps uptake
in angiosperms A. Root System Roots take up water via roots Large surface area is needed Roots branch and have root hairs Cortex structure also helps uptake 1 B. Minerals Nitrogen (NO 3-,NH 4+ ) Potassium
More informationApplication of Hot Wire Technique and Comsol Multiphysics in the Heat Transfer Monitoring in Solids.
Application of Hot Wire Technique and Comsol Multiphysics in the Heat Transfer Monitoring in Solids. J. Hernández Wong 1, V. Suarez 1, J. Guarachi 1, A. Calderón 1, A. G. Juárez Gracia 1, J.B. Rojas- Trigos
More informationQuestion 1: State the location and function of different types of meristem. Meristems are specialised regions of plant growth. The meristems mark the regions where active cell division and rapid division
More informationData Analysis and Modeling with Stable Isotope Ratios. Chun-Ta Lai San Diego State University June 2008
Data Analysis and Modeling with Stable Isotope Ratios Chun-Ta Lai San Diego State University June 2008 Leaf water is 18 O-enriched via transpiration δ 18 O vapor : -12 H 2 16 O H 2 18 O δ 18 O leaf : +8
More information