Contributors. List of Abbreviations. 1. Micromorphology as a Tool in Soil and Regolith Studies 1

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1 Contributors Preface List of Abbreviations xxv xxix xxxi 1. Micromorphology as a Tool in Soil and Regolith Studies 1 1. Introduction 1 2. Soil and Regolith Genesis 2 3. Soil and Regolith Classification 3 4. Palaeopedology, Quaternary Geology and Archaeology 4 5. Soil Management and Other Applications 5 6. Correlations Between Micromorphology and Physical Data 6 7. Monitoring Experimental Work and Analyses 6 8. Conclusions 8 References 8 2. Micromorphological Features and Their Relation to Processes and Classification: General Guidelines and Keys Introduction Criteria for in situ Formation and Relative Chronology Relicts of the Parent Material Nature of the Parent Material Degree of Weathering Key to Features Microstructure and c/f-related Distribution Patterns Coarse Monic Basic Microstructure 20 v

2 vi Contents Enaulic Basic Microstructure Chitonic Basic Microstructure Gefuric Basic Microstructure Granular Microstructure Crumb Microstructure Blocky Microstructure Platy Microstructure Lenticular Microstructure Spongy Microstructure Vesicular Microstructure Vughy Microstructure Channel Microstructure Massive Microstructure Groundmass Heterogeneity Special Fabric Types Coarse Material Micromass Organic material Pedofeatures Textural Coatings and Infillings Iron and Manganese Oxides Calcium Carbonates Gypsum Pedogenic Silica and Silicates Other Minerals 32 References 33

3 vii 3. Colluvial and Mass Wasting Deposits Introduction General Features of Translocated Material Colluvial Deposits Laminated Colluvium Non-laminated Colluvium Post-depositional Alterations Mass Wasting Deposits Solifluction deposits Landslides Debris-flow deposits Grain-flow deposits Conclusions 46 Acknowledgments 46 References Saprolites Introduction The Saprolite Profile General Micromorphological Features Saprolites on Specific Lithological Rock Types Igneous Rocks Granite Diorite Gabbro Andesitic Rocks Basalt Metamorphic Rocks Gneiss Schists 59

4 viii Contents Amphibolites Serpentinite Phyllites and Slates Sedimentary Rocks Siliciclastic Rocks Calcareous Rocks Conclusions 63 References Pedoplasmation: Formation of Soil Material Introduction General Features Disappearance of the Original Rock Fabric Development of Microstructure and Porosity Other Changes Changes in Grain-Size Distribution Colour Homogenisation and Limpidity Changes Changes of the b-fabric Pedoplasmation on Carbonate Rocks Conclusions 78 References Frost Action Introduction Microstructure Platy and Lenticular Microstructure Granular Microstructure Microstructure Stability Groundmass Micromass Coarse Material 93

5 ix 4. Pedofeatures Implications for Pedostratigraphy Summary and Conclusions 102 References Vertic Features Introduction Microstructure Groundmass Coarse Fraction Micromass Colour b-fabric Pedofeatures Fe and Mn Oxide Pedofeatures Carbonate Pedofeatures Gypsum Pedofeatures Textural Pedofeatures Degradation of Vertic Features in Cultivated Soils Vertic Features in Palaeosoils Conclusions 121 References Redoximorphic Features Introduction General Genetic Aspects Nature and Identification Intrusive Redox Pedofeatures Impregnative Redox Pedofeatures Depletion Redox Pedofeatures 135

6 x Contents 4. Significance Duration of Water Saturation Special Cases Stratified Soils Paddy Soils Bog Iron Dark Parent Material Relict versus Contemporary Features Conclusions 142 References Calcium Carbonate Features Introduction Carbonate Mineralogy Microscopic Techniques Terminology Groundmass Coarse Fraction Micromass Pedofeatures Coatings General Aspects Pendants Laminar Crusts Hypo- and Quasi-Coatings Infillings General Aspects Needle-Fibre Calcite Coarse-Grained Cement 161

7 xi 3.4. Nodules General Aspects Pisoliths Root-Related Features Calcified Root Hairs Rhizoliths Microcodium Calcified Filaments Biogenic Crystal Intergrowths Earthworm Granules Faecal Spherulites Remains of Mollusca Recrystallisation and Dissolution Recrystallisation Dissolution Associated Features Dissolution of Silicate Minerals Calcium Oxalate Occurrences Lichens and Fungi Calcium Oxalate Phytoliths Formations with Combinations of Calcareous Features Palustrine Carbonates Complex Calcrete Profiles Conclusions 181 References Gypsic Features Introduction Crystal Morphology Occurrences in Nature 196

8 xii Contents 2.2. Experimental Studies Groundmass Powdery Gypsic Materials Microcrystalline gypsic materials Rupture-resistant Gypsic Materials Aeolian Gypsic Materials Pedofeatures Infillings and Coatings Nodules Crystals and Crystal Intergrowths Other Features Common in Soils with Gypsum Dissolution Features Calcite Pseudomorphs Discussion and Conclusions 210 References Textural Pedofeatures and Related Horizons Introduction Clay Coatings General Characteristics Confusion with Micromorphologically Similar Features Formation General Aspects Specific Types of Clay Coatings Destruction and Alteration Mechanical Processes Alteration and Secondary Illuviation Related Features Textural Pedofeatures Other Than Clay Coatings Coarse-Grained Coatings 228

9 xiii 3.2. Layered Coatings Infillings Silt Cappings Horizons Related to Occurrences of Textural Pedofeatures General Aspects Argic Horizon Sandy Argic Horizons Loamy Argic Horizons Clayey Argic Horizons Agric Horizons Natric Horizons Nitic Horizons Beta-Horizons Argic Horizons in Palaeosoils Eluvial Horizons Quantification of Clay Illuviation Conclusions 239 Acknowledgments 240 References Spodic Materials Introduction Spodic Horizons and Ortstein Microstructure and c/f-related Distribution Coarse Material Fine Organic Material Polymorphic Material Monomorphic Material Occurrence 259

10 xiv Contents 2.4. Short-Range-Order Aluminosilicates Related Horizons Surface Horizons Eluvial (Albic and/or E) Horizons Placic Horizons Other Horizons Conclusions 266 References Regoliths and Soils on Volcanic Ash Introduction Microstructure Groundmass Coarse Material Identification of Components Alteration Before Pedogenesis Sedimentary Features Evolution in Soils Micromass Organic Material Pedofeatures Illuvial Clay Coatings Authigenic Clay Coatings Other Pedofeatures Conclusions 295 Acknowledgements 296 References Oxic and Related Materials Introduction Microstructure 306

11 xv 2.1. General Features Origin of Granular Aggregates Degree of Development and Degradation of the Granular Microstructure Groundmass c/f-related Distribution Coarse Mineral Material General Features Weathering of Quartz Fine Mineral Material Organic Material Pedofeatures Channel Infillings and Coatings Iron Oxide Pedofeatures Gibbsite Coatings and Nodules Clay Coatings and Infillings Siliceous Pedofeatures Conclusions 320 References Lateritic and Bauxitic Materials Introduction Historical Background Definition of Laterite The Standard Laterite Profile Ferritic Laterites Soft Laterite or Mottled Clay Zone General Characteristics Hematite Nodules and Coatings Other Coatings, Infillings, Nodules 334

12 xvi Contents 2.2. Hard Laterite General Characteristics Nodules Kaolinite Goethite Coatings Goethite Coatings and Infillings Other Features Gravel-Rich Layer Bauxites and Bauxitic Laterites Conclusions 345 References Topsoils Mollic, Takyric and Yermic Horizons Introduction Organo-Mineral Surface Horizons General Features Mollic Horizon Orthotype Variants Surface Horizons in Desert Soils Takyric Horizons Orthotype Variant Yermic Horizons Conclusions 364 References Soil Organic Matter Introduction Organic Materials Fresh Materials 370

13 xvii 2.2. Decomposed Materials Charcoal and Related Materials Soil Organic Matter Horizons and Profiles Moder Mull Anmoor Mor Peat and Related Materials Peat Fibric Horizons Hemic Horizons Sapric Horizons Peat Ripening Dy, Gyttja and Sapropel Organic Pedofeatures in Mineral Horizons Organic Sedimentary Features Applications and Conclusions 389 References Features Related to Faunal Activity Introduction Soil Fauna and Micromorphology Diversity of the Impact of Soil Fauna on Soils Faunal Voids Channels Chambers Modified Voids Pedofeatures Excrements Coatings 408

14 xviii Contents 3.3. Infillings Other Pedofeatures Features Related to Faunal Impact on Profile Development Conclusions 413 Acknowledgments 414 References Physical and Biological Surface Crusts and Seals Introduction Physical Crusts Structural Crusts Disruptional Seals and Crusts Aggradational Seals or Crusts Vesicular Crusts Sedimentary Crusts Biological Soil Crusts Conclusions 434 References Salt Minerals in Saline Soils and Salt Crusts Introduction Halite Thenardite and Mirabilite Bloedite Other Highly Soluble Salt Minerals Chlorides Sulphates Aphthitalite Burkeite Eugsterite Glauberite 450

15 xix Hexahydrite, Epsomite and Starkeyite Konyaite Syngenite Sodium Carbonates Nitrates Bassanite and Anhydrite Poorly Soluble Sulphate Minerals Celestite Kalistrontite Barite Mineral Assemblages Conclusions 460 References Pedogenic and Biogenic Siliceous Features Introduction Forms of Silica Quartz and Chalcedony Cristobalite and Tridymite Opal Non-Biogenic Silica Silcretes Duripans Fragipans Biogenic Silica Phytoliths Other Forms of Biogenic Silica Conclusions 488 References 488

16 xx Contents 22. Authigenic Silicate Minerals Sepiolite-Palygorskite, Zeolites and Sodium Silicates Introduction Sepiolite and Palygorskite Thin Section Studies Transmission Electron Microscopy Scanning Electron Microscopy Zeolites Thin Section Studies Transmission Electron Microscopy Scanning Electron Microscopy Sodium Silicates Conclusions 511 References Phosphatic Features Introduction Phosphate Occurrences as Groundmass Components Coarse Fraction Micromass Guano Deposits Phosphate Occurrences as Pedofeatures Conclusions 537 References Sulphidic and Sulphuric Materials Introduction Sulphidic Materials Pyrite Pyrite Framboids Other Aspects of Pyrite Occurrences 547

17 xxi 2.2. Sulphides Other than Pyrite General Fabric of Sulphidic Layers Sulphuric Materials Jarosite Iron Oxides Gypsum Silica Other Minerals Sulphide Oxidation Products in Contexts other than Acid Sulphate Soils Jarosite Gypsum Other Sulphate Minerals Conclusions 559 References Anthropogenic Features Introduction Microstructure Agricultural Soils Tillage Other Practices Technosols Groundmass Coarse Mineral Components Agricultural Soils Technosols Micromass Organic Components Pedofeatures 578

18 xxii Contents 5.1. Large-scale Field Practices Tillage Fertilisation Irrigation and Wet Cultivation Urban Soils Conclusions 582 References Archaeological Materials Introduction Natural Soils and Sediments Employed in Construction Turf Ground-Raising Constructional Materials Floors, Surfaces and Walls Organic Floor Coverings Waste Materials Inorganic Waste Materials Organic Waste Materials Herbivore Dung Pig Dung Dog Coprolites Human Coprolites Manufactured Materials Stone Tools Plasters and Mortars Metal Working Conclusions 613 Acknowledgments 614 References 614

19 xxiii 27. Palaeosoils and Relict Soils Introduction Methodology Recognition of Palaeosoils and Relict Soils Reconstruction of History Discontinuous Soil Evolution Soil Memory Systems Analysis of Polygenetic Palaeosoils and Soils Common Types of Hierarchies Textural Features Ferruginous Features Calcitic Facies Reworked Materials In situ Soil Reworking and Mass Transportation Transport in Suspension Aeolian Processes Palaeoenvironmental Significance Transitions in Palaeosoil Sequences and Their Significance Reconstruction of The History of Relict Soils Dating Palaeosoil Development Diagenesis Conclusions 654 References 654 Author Index 663 Subject Index 707

Lecture 6: Soil Profiles: Diagnostic Horizons

Lecture 6: Soil Profiles: Diagnostic Horizons Complexity in Soil Profiles Soil Horizons Soils display distinct layering O Horizon: Partially decomposed organic matter (OM) A Horizon: Near surface, mineral