Biogeography, or How Plants and Animals Got Where They Are
|
|
- Arthur Chase
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Biogeography, or How Plants and Animals Got Where They Are Biogeography is the study of the distribution of organisms on Earth it s all there in the name. This means determining not only where different species live and where they don t live (their distributions) but also the historical processes by which they achieved those distributions. Evolutionary biologists can use biogeographic patterns (distribution, fossil record, phylogeny, etc.) to test hypotheses of biogeographic process (e.g., vicariance, dispersal, extinction, and speciation). During the middle and late parts of the 1800s, biogeography was on the cutting-edge of the study of natural history (geology, botany, and zoology, etc. the term biology had not yet achieved common usage). Some of the most important natural historians of the time were biogeographers: Lyell, Hooker, Gray, Wallace, and, of course, Charles Darwin, to name a few. As might be evident from this list of scientists, the early development of biogeography was closed linked to the rise of evolutionary thought. The objectives of this essay are to (1) demonstrate that the study of biogeography has relevance to modern-day evolutionary biology and (2) suggest how biogeographical problems might be approached through the scientific method (i.e., hypothesis testing). We will first address the kinds of patterns of use to the biogeographer, followed by a discussion of different biogeographic processes. Finally, the example of the Gondwana lungfishes will be examined, and you will have the opportunity to test and discuss similar biogeographic problems. Pattern Endemism, Provincialism, and Disjunction No species occurs everywhere. Even widespread species like Homo sapiens (that s us) have limited distributions: people don t live in the oceans. Consider a less striking example, the spotted skunk, Spilogale putorius. S. putorius occurs only in North America. It is endemic to North America, as opposed to a species that is ubiquitous, or pandemic, occurring everywhere. The distribution of a species, or other monophyletic taxon, may be depicted by a range map (Figure 1). Such an illustration does not imply that spotted skunks occur at every point within the shaded area. Rather the range boundaries merely encircle the collection of points from which the taxon is known. Why one can find S. putorius at some places within its present distribution but not others is generally due to local, contemporary processes competition, predation, climate, etc., and these are generally problems for the ecologist. The biogeographer, on the other hand, is more interested in the larger, historical aspect: How did such a pattern of endemism come to be? Often many taxa share the same pattern of endemism. The Cumberland Plateau is a mountainous area of Kentucky, Tennessee, and, to a lesser extent, Alabama, Virginia, and North
2 Carolina (Figure 2). Several species of fishes and mollusks (e.g., snails and clams) are endemic to the Cumberland Plateau. A localized region of endemic forms is referred to as a province. As the figure shows, the river systems of eastern North America can be divided into several provinces based on the distributions of freshwater mussels. It is this sort of provincialism that lends another level of complexity to the questions of individual species endemism. If several taxa share the same basic pattern of endemism, isn t it reasonable to hypothesize that they share the same historical cause for their present distributions? Another pattern of interest to biogeographers is disjunction. Consider a monophyletic taxon that occurs in two, non-adjacent provinces. For example, the present distribution of marsupial mammals is limited to the Australian region and the Americas (Figure 3). Is it appropriate to include the Pacific Ocean as part of their range? No. The ocean is a dispersal barrier how far do you think a koala or opossum can swim? When a taxon occurs on both sides of a barrier, it is said to have a disjunct distribution. But, bear in mind that what constitutes a barrier varies from group to group. Phylogeny, the Fossil Record, and Historical Geology When we make a hypothesis about the distribution of a species or some higher taxon, we are also implicitly making a statement about phylogeny. In the marsupial mammal example of the previous section, the observed disjunction is only interesting because one natural group occurs on two isolated continents. Consider Old and New World porcupines the family Erethizontidae occurs in North and South America, the Hystricidae in Asia, Europe, and Africa. That is apparently quite a disjunction. However, analyzing the phylogeny of porcupines in the context of other rodents reveals that porcupines are not monophyletic. Instead, each porcupine family shares a more recent common ancestor with other rodents on their respective sides of the Atlantic Ocean than they do with each other. Rather than a case of disjunction, the porcupines are exemplars of convergent evolution. The distribution of a species, genus, family, etc. is the sum of the distributions of the individual populations that comprise it. That includes extinct representatives as well. The fossil record is a rich (though incomplete) source of data on the past distributions of plants and animals. At the very least, a dated fossil provides a minimum age for the taxa to which it belongs if a paleontologist finds a fossil turtle 10 million years old, then turtles are at least 10 million years old and a paleodistributional data point. As the example below will show, the collective dates and distributional points of clade-mates living and dead are a valuable resource for testing hypotheses of biogeographic process. The study of biogeography also requires a knowledge of Earth history at least the latest 15% or so since the rise of macroscopic life. Whereas the study of contemporary processes often forces the simplifying assumption of a constant environment, over longer time-scales the world is a busy, dynamic place. During the last 300 million years, the continents have collided, split apart, and then
3 re-fused; sea level has risen and fallen; and, as recently as 15,000 years ago, a good portion of North America and Eurasia was covered in thousands of meters of glacial ice. All this geologic action has had a profound evolutionary effect. This will become more evident during the following discussion of biogeographic process. Processes Speciation and Extinction Speciation and extinction, analogous to the birth and death of species, have an obvious affect of the diversity of species that inhabit a particular region. For example, if the rate of speciation is high in a particular province, it will likely be inhabited by a high proportion of endemic forms. But would the same pattern of high diversity be observed in a province with a low extinction rate? Is a low extinction rate the same thing as a high speciation rate? Consider the example of Darwin s finches on the Galapagos Islands of the eastern, tropical Pacific. This small chain of volcanic islands is home to some 13 finches that occur on the Galapagos and no where else. If we hypothesize that this provincialism is due to a high speciation rate, we would then predict that the speciation that lead to this diversity of finches occurred on the islands. On the other hand, a low extinction rate model would suggest that the ancestors of these birds were once more widespread. They persist on the islands, but the finches have gone extinct everywhere else. What would we need to test these hypotheses? How would the predictions of a low speciation rate or high extinction rate differ? Extinction as a process can also result in disjunctions, and the mammal family Camelidae is a prime example. Presently, the group is represented by a pair of camel species in Asia and northern Africa and by llama species in South America; the Camelidae are absent from North America. The fossil record shows, however, that camels did occur in North America. Within the last few million years, the Camelidae had a reasonably continuous distribution from Asia onto the Americas across the Bering Land Bridge, a low sea-level stretch of land connecting Siberia and Alaska. The North American species spread across the Isthmus of Panama into the South America, but then went extinct in North America, as so many of the large mammals did at the close of the Pleistocene. However, this explanation raises an important consideration Should North America be considered a barrier to camel dispersal? Dispersal and Vicariance The principle mechanisms hypothesized to explain most observed disjunctions are dispersal and vicariance. When a species or more inclusive natural group occurs on both sides of a barrier, one of two hypotheses must be true:
4 1. The barrier is imperfect; it allows at least a small amount of dispersal across it. The barrier was there first, and the taxon got across it. 2. Or, the barrier arose to divide the once continuous range of the taxon. So, the taxon was there first, and the barrier appeared and divided its range. The former model is known as dispersal, the latter is vicariance (Figure 4). To which of these classes of disjunction mechanisms does the example of the Camelidae belong? For dispersal to lead to new populations by the founder effect, only a single dispersal event is often all that is necessary. The barrier separating the two disjunct provinces can not be perfect. If it is (and always has been), then dispersal is impossible. On the other hand, if dispersal is too frequent, the question is raised whether the barrier is in fact actually a dispersal barrier. Consider again the Galapagos finches. Ecuadorian finches have a disjunct distribution populations on the Galapagos are separated from the mainland populations by a substantial dispersal filter: about 900 km of open ocean. This is well beyond the cruising-range of a little finch. However, if a few finches (with at least one member of each gender) were blown off course by a tropical storm, they could found a new, isolated population where ever they end up. The presence of finches on the Galapagos suggests that a rare dispersal event of this kind must have taken place. Because the Earth is a dynamic place, changes often occur that create barriers and break up populations. The marsupial mammals on Australia and South America at one time had a continuous distribution. During the Mesozoic, those two continents were connect with Africa, India, and Antarctica to form a huge super-continent known as Gondwanaland (Figure 5). When those continents rifted apart, dispersal barriers of open ocean formed between them. Thus, the disjunction of Australian and South American marsupials was caused by vicariance. Vicariance events need not take place only on such large scales. Any process that mechanically divides the range of a taxon qualifies. Testing Biogeographic Hypotheses: an Example Using the Lungfishes Hypotheses of the processes responsible for biogeographic patterns are inherently difficult to test because they are outside the domain of experimentation. Regardless of the fact that biogeographical processes act on spatial and temporal scales beyond experimental manipulation, the real philosophical difficulty is that we are talking about actual events that occurred during a history that no one observed. Even if we could manually reunite Gondwanaland and then carefully observe the course of evolution over the following 100 million years, there is no a priori reason to suspect that the same biogeographic processes would repeat themselves i.e., History happened one way once. Although we can never know the exact course of unobserved, ancient history, we can estimate it. While it is very easy to construct Just-So stories consistent with observed distributional and phylogenetic patterns, that is inconsistent with the Hypothetico-Deductive tenets of the Scientific
5 Method. To approach biogeography from a scientific perspective, we need to derive predictions from our hypotheses. Ideally, the predictions should be stated in such a way that if the predictions are false, the hypothesis from which they are derived must be false. That is the hard part. The best way to see the application of the scientific method to biogeographic problems is to see an actual example. Lungfishes of the Southern Continents The lungfishes (Superorder Ceratodimorpha) are a group of primitive-looking, freshwater fishes presently occurring on the continents of Africa, South America, and Australia (Figure 6). The group is comprised of three genera, each endemic to one of the continents: Neoceratodus (Australia), Protopterus (Africa), and Lepidosiren (South America). As their common name suggests, ceratodimorphs all display at least some degree of air breathing, ranging from Neoceratodus, which will occasionally gulp air at the surface, to Protopterus which can survive for months in the damp mud of a dry river bed. Our objective here is to see what we can infer about the biogeographic processes leading to this distribution of air-breathing fishes based on their present biogeographic, phylogenetic, and historical patterns. There are no hard and fast rules to dealing with biogeographic patterns. Each case has unique qualities that bear upon the details of the analysis. However, as described above, there are often broad process-themes that apply widely to different cases endemism is endemism and disjunction is disjunction, regardless of the taxa involved. Table 1 lists some diagnostic pattern-predictions for alternative, generic biogeographic process-hypotheses. If we can show the predictions to be false, we may also have grounds to falsify one or the other alternative hypothesis. In the case of the Ceratodimorpha, this is clearly a problem of disjunction (although each of the three genera shows also displays a high degree of endemism). The three lungfish genera are isolated by thousands of kilometers of open ocean, a formidable barrier to strictly freshwater fish. We can hypothesize two alternative processes for this pattern, either dispersal or vicariance. Since we are dealing with three separate disjunct taxa, we could potentially be dealing with both of these processes. From the models presented in Table 1, we can derive specific predictions for each case: 1. If lungfish achieved their present distribution by dispersal, then a. the Ceratodimorpha is monophyletic. b. the fossil record should show that the most recent common ancestor of all three genera did not occur in all three areas. c. the fossil record should show that the most recent common ancestor of all three genera postdates the formation of the southern oceans. d. Australia, South America, and Africa were not connected (i.e., they have been isolated since the most recent common ancestor of the lungfishes).
6 2. If lungfishes achieved their present distribution by vicariance, then a. they should form a monophyletic taxon b. the common ancestor should have occurred in all three disjunct areas. c. the common ancestor should pre-date the formation of the modern Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. d. Australia, South America, and Africa should have been connected during the evolution of the Ceratodimorpha. We can make these predictions and address their implications even before we have the phylogenetic, fossil, and historic patterns to test them. Both the dispersal and vicariance models predict that the lungfishes form a natural group, so the outcome of any phylogenetic analysis including Neoceratodus, Protopterus, and/or Lepidosiren will be uninformative for testing these hypotheses. However, if they are not monophyletic, then we are not even dealing with a disjunction. In that case, the lungfishes would be like the porcupine example described above, and each lungfish presumably evolved from the indigenous fish fauna of its respective continent. This is by no means a rare occurrence, and many unrelated fishes have evolved the ability to breath air. A dispersal model assumes that the oceans surrounding the continents are not perfect barriers and that lungfish can, however infrequently, get across them. Several ad hoc scenarios can account for long-distance dispersal. Maybe the eggs of the ancestor got stuck in the mud on the feet of a duck, and that duck flew across the oceans before the eggs dried up. When the duck landed in a pond on one of the other continents, the eggs fell off, developed into adult lungfish, and a new, isolated population was founded. Or, maybe the common ancestor of these three genera was not limited to freshwater and a few individuals swam all that way. These may not sound like very likely occurrences, but that is not necessarily grounds to reject the hypothesis. Over evolutionary time scales (i.e., millions of years) events that happen once every ten million years can actually happen (but see the discussion below). The vicariance model predicts that at sometime during the evolution of the Ceratodimorpha, there was suitable lungfish habit connecting the now-disjunct continents. This could mean that the ocean barriers did not always exist or that the oceans were not, in fact, always a barrier. The model, though, is very explicit in that the common ancestor of the lungfishes must pre-date the formation of those three oceans as barriers. If the common ancestor is younger than the barrier, a vicariance hypothesis is rejected. So how do the known phylogenetic, fossil, and historic patterns conform to our predictions? a. The Ceratodimorpha is monophyletic.
7 b. The fossil record of the lungfishes extends as far back as the Devonian (at least 360 millions years ago), and fossil lungfishes, similar to Neoceratodus, have been found on all continents. c. Gondwanaland, the land-mass composed of the southern continents, did not begin to disintegrate until the early Cretaceous (144 million years ago) (Figure 5). Review these data in light of the above alternative predictions. These patterns support the vicariance model while rejecting the dispersal model as we have stated it. There are two important caveats regarding out conclusion that the present distribution of the Ceratodimorpha is due to vicariance caused by the late Mesozoic break-up of Gondwanaland. The first is that our conclusion is only a corroborated biogeographic hypothesis, not the Truth. This hypothesis (and all hypotheses) are in need of further testing. Since we can t prove our hypothesis, we can raise our confidence in it by not only rejecting all the alternatives, but also by not rejecting the vicariance model under further testing. In fact, the next step in our lungfish study should be to try to find the evidence that rejects the vicariance model. What would that entail? This brings us to the second caveat. Whereas a vicariance hypothesis is rejectable, dispersal hypotheses are not except under certain circumstances. Even though we showed our dispersal predictions to be false, we can always come up with some complicated wrinkle that leaves dispersal as an option. This is especially the case when data regarding the pattern of the fossil record and/or historical geology are missing. Since a dispersal hypothesis counts on some infrequent, freak events, there will be as many dispersal hypothesis to reject as there are conceivable freak events. Is that also true of vicariance hypotheses? The examples above demonstrate that the Scientific Method can be applied to historical problems like hypotheses of biogeographic process. Many scientists feel that the Scientific Method does not apply to historical problems How can you do experiments? How can you make predictions about the past? While these issues do complicate approaching biogeography (and other historical biological disciplines, like phylogenetics) from a scientific perspective, the hypotheses and predictions (post-dictions?) of the various process models can be rejected. It is by overstepping what is rejectable that we revert to biogeographic Just-So stories. Since most people don t know Latin, caveat sounds much less problematical than warning.
8 Discussion Questions If several unrelated taxa share the same basic pattern of endemism (or disjunction), it is reasonable to hypothesize that they share the same historical cause for their distributions? In other words, of what value are the distributions of unrelated taxa to specific biogeographic hypotheses? Philosophically, how does the testing of vicariance and dispersal hypotheses differ? Felis concolor ( depending on where you are from, it can otherwise be known as a mountain lion, cougar, puma, etc.) has a disjunct distribution. It ranges widely from Mexico through the Rocky Mountain states into Canada and east to Louisiana. There is also an isolated population in southern, peninsular Florida. What biogeographic processes could account for this distribution? Imagine no fossil or geological data are available for the Galapagos Islands. What alternative predictions can you make regarding the relationships of island finches to those on the mainland? Draw the alternative cladograms you might expect from a phylogenetic analysis. More than 100 species of fruit flies occur on the Hawaiian Islands. What sorts of biogeographic processes could account for such a pattern? What predictions can be made to test your hypotheses? Several hundred species of cichlid fishes are endemic to Lake Victoria in eastern Africa. What sorts of biogeographic processes could account for such a pattern? After discussing the last two questions, consider how the biogeographical and nautical definitions of an island might differ.
9 Table 1. Predictions of Biogeographic Hypotheses. High Provincial Diversity: High Speciation Rate vs. Low Extinction Rate Pattern High Speciation Low Extinction Phylogeny The provincial species in question are more closely related to each other than species outside the province (i.e., they form a monophyletic group). The provincial species in question are more closely related to species outside the province (i.e., they do not form a monophyletic group). Fossil Record The common ancestor(s) of the species in question occurred only in the same endemic province. The common ancestor(s) of the species in question occurred more widely than the endemic province. Historical Geology (no prediction) The environment outside the area of the province was previously more similar to the area within the province. Disjunction: Dispersal vs. Vicariance Pattern Dispersal Vicariance Phylogeny The disjunct taxa are more closely Same as for Dispersal. related to each other than they are to taxa on their same side of the barrier. Fossil Record The common ancestor of the disjunct taxa only occurred on one side of the barrier. The common ancestor of the disjunct taxa is younger than the barrier. The common ancestor of the disjunct taxa occurred on both sides of the barrier. The common ancestor of the disjunct taxa is older than the barrier. Historical Geology The disjunct regions were never connected. The disjunct regions were historically connected.
10 Figure Captions Figure 1. Range map of the spotted skunk, Spilogale putorius. Figure 2. Freshwater mussel provinces of North America. There are about 280 species of freshwater mussels in North America. Some of these are widespread (occurring in more than one mussel province), but most show a high degree of endemism. The figure shows seven freshwater mussel provinces of North America, they are as follows: (A) Atlantic, (C) Cumberland Plateau, (E) Eastern Gulf Coastal, (I) Interior Basin, (O) Ozark Plateau, (P) Pacific, and (W) Western Gulf Coastal. The numbers after the letter-symbols are: # of spp. in the province (# of spp. endemic to the province). Figure 3. Global distribution of marsupial mammals. Figure 4. Dispersal vs. Vicariance. The figure shows two different biogeographic processes that result in the same phylogenetic pattern: A evolving into B and C. At Time 0, the dispersal model shows the Ancestor A occurring in one area. Some time elapses, during which A disperses to another area. These two isolated populations evolve into B and C. The vicariance model shows A occupying a very similar area. However, over the course of time, the area becomes divided. The fragments of A evolve into B and C. Figure 5. Gondwanaland during the Late Jurassic. Figure 6. Global distribution of the Ceratodimorpha.
11 Range of Spilogale putorius
12 P 7 (7) I 75 (2) O 70 (14) C 105 (31) E 110 (77) A 49 (29) W 52 (21)
13 Distribution of marsupials
14 Dispersal Vicariance Time 0 A A... a rare dispersal event of Ancestor A the range of Ancestor A is divided... Time 1 B C B C
15 Eurasia North America South America Africa Gondwanaland India Equator Antarctica Australia
16 Protopterus Lepidosiren Neoceratidus
Geography of Evolution
Geography of Evolution Biogeography - the study of the geographic distribution of organisms. The current distribution of organisms can be explained by historical events and current climatic patterns. Darwin
More informationBiogeography. An ecological and evolutionary approach SEVENTH EDITION. C. Barry Cox MA, PhD, DSc and Peter D. Moore PhD
Biogeography An ecological and evolutionary approach C. Barry Cox MA, PhD, DSc and Peter D. Moore PhD Division of Life Sciences, King's College London, Fmnklin-Wilkins Building, Stamford Street, London
More information2 Earth s Changing Continents
CHAPTER 9 SECTION The History of Life on Earth 2 Earth s Changing Continents California Science Standards 7.4.a, 7.4.e, 7.4.f BEFORE YOU READ After you read this section, you should be able to answer these
More informationName Class Date. In the space provided, write the letter of the definition that best matches the term or phrase.
Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: The Changing Continents 1. What is the result of slow movements of tectonic plates? RESHAPING EARTH S CRUST In the space provided, write the letter of the definition
More informationUoN, CAS, DBSC BIOL102 lecture notes by: Dr. Mustafa A. Mansi. The Phylogenetic Systematics (Phylogeny and Systematics)
- Phylogeny? - Systematics? The Phylogenetic Systematics (Phylogeny and Systematics) - Phylogenetic systematics? Connection between phylogeny and classification. - Phylogenetic systematics informs the
More informationDrifting Continents. Key Concepts
Plate Tectonics Section Summary Key Concepts What was Alfred Wegener s hypothesis about the continents? What evidence supported Wegener s hypothesis? Why was Alfred Wegener s theory rejected by most scientists
More informationGeologic Time. The Cenozoic Era. 7. Mammals evolved after dinosaurs became extinct.
Geologic Time The Cenozoic Era Key Concepts What major geologic events occurred during the Cenozoic era? What does fossil evidence reveal about the Cenozoic era? What do you think? Read the two statements
More informationDarwin s Theory of Evolution
Chapter 15 Darwin s Theory of Evolution Section 15 1 The Puzzle of Life s Diversity (pages 369 372) This section outlines Charles Darwin s contribution to science It also describes the pattern of diversity
More informationMajor geological events fit into a timeline, beginning with the formation of the Earth
Chapter 4 Major geological events fit into a timeline, beginning with the formation of the Earth 4.1 The origin and development of life William Smith was a canal engineer who supervised the excavation
More informationEarth s Changing Continents
2 What You Will Learn Earth s continents have moved around Earth s surface throughout Earth s history and have only recently arrived at their current locations. Rocks and fossils provide evidence of continental
More informationConceptually, we define species as evolutionary units :
Bio 1M: Speciation 1 How are species defined? S24.1 (2ndEd S26.1) Conceptually, we define species as evolutionary units : Individuals within a species are evolving together Individuals of different species
More information15-1 The Puzzle of Life's Diversity Slide 1 of 20
1 of 20 Evolution is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms. * Known as biological change over time A scientific theory is a well-supported testable explanation of
More informationA) Pre-Darwin History:
Darwin Notes A) Pre-Darwin History: Ancient Greek philosophers such as and believed species were permanent and did not evolve. These ideas prevailed for 2,000 years. In 1859 Charles Darwin published. This
More informationEvolution. Darwin s Voyage
Evolution Darwin s Voyage Charles Darwin Explorer on an observation trip to the Galapagos Islands. He set sail on the HMS Beagle in 1858 from England on a 5 year trip. He was a naturalist (a person who
More information3. The diagram below shows how scientists think some of Earth's continents were joined together in the geologic past.
1. The map below shows the present-day locations of South America and Africa. Remains of Mesosaurus, an extinct freshwater reptile, have been found in similarly aged bedrock formed from lake sediments
More informationPLATE TECTONICS. SECTION 17.1 Drifting Continents
Date Period Name PLATE TECTONICS SECTION.1 Drifting Continents In your textbook, read about continental drift. Circle the letter of the choice that best completes each statement. 1. Early mapmakers thought
More informationOrigin of an idea about origins
Origin of an idea about origins Biological evolution is the process of change during the course of time because of the alteration of the genotype and the transfer of these altered genes to the next generation.
More informationFinal Revision G8 Biology ( ) Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.
Final Revision G8 Biology ( 2017-2018 ) Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1 A species is a group of similar organisms that A can mate with each
More informationBio 1M: The evolution of apes. 1 Example. 2 Patterns of evolution. Similarities and differences. History
Bio 1M: The evolution of apes 1 Example Humans are an example of a biological species that has evolved Possibly of interest, since many of your friends are probably humans Humans seem unique: How do they
More informationUnit 1: Geography. For additional information, refer to this website: 1 G e o g r a p h y
Unit 1: Geography For additional information, refer to this website: http://mryoungtms.weebly.com/ 1 G e o g r a p h y Continents and Oceans SOL USI. 2a Essential Understanding: Continents are large land
More informationMesozoic Era 251 m.y.a 65.5 m.y.a
Mesozoic Cenozoic notes.notebook Mesozoic & Cenozoic 251 m.y.a Present at the end of the Permian, 90% of marine organisms and more than 70% of land organisms died. because resources and space were readily
More informationCHAPTER 2--THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
CHAPTER 2--THE DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THEORY Student: 1. In Europe during the Middle Ages, it was believed that. A. all species had evolved from a common ancestor B. evolution was the result of natural
More informationMajor Domain of the Earth
Major Domain of the Earth The surface of the earth is a complex zone in which three main components of the environment meet, overlap and interact. The solid portion of the earth on which we live is called
More informationEras of Earth's History Lesson 6
Eras of Earth's History Lesson 6 May 24 8:42 PM What happened in the Paleozoic Era? What happened in the Mesozoic Era? What happened in the Cenozoic Era? May 24 8:55 PM 1 I. What happened in the Paleozoic
More informationDirected Reading. Section: Continental Drift. years ago? WEGENER S HYPOTHESIS
Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: Continental Drift 1. Who obtained new information about the continents and their coastlines 400 years ago? 2. What did people notice when they studied new world
More informationSection Review. Change Over Time UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS. of evolution? share ancestors? CRITICAL THINKING
Skills Worksheet Section Review Change Over Time UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS 1. Describing What are three lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution? 2. Summarizing What evidence about the ancestors
More informationCharles Darwin became a naturalist, a scientist who studies nature, during a voyage on the British ship HMS Beagle.
Theory of Evolution Darwin s Voyage What did Darwin observe? Charles Darwin became a naturalist, a scientist who studies nature, during a voyage on the British ship HMS Beagle. On his journey, Darwin observed
More informationWeek: 4 5 Dates: 9/8 9/12 Unit: Plate Tectonics
clementaged.weebly.com Name: ODD Period: Week: 4 5 Dates: 9/8 9/12 Unit: Plate Tectonics Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday 7 No School 8 E 9 O *Vocabulary *Frayer Vocab *Continental Drift Notes
More informationBiology Chapter 15 Evolution Notes
Biology Chapter 15 Evolution Notes Section 1: Darwin's Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection Charles Darwin- English naturalist that studied animals over a number of years before developing the theory
More information2 Georgia: Its Heritage and Its Promise
TERMS region, erosion, fault, elevation, Fall Line, aquifer, marsh, climate, weather, precipitation, drought, tornado, hurricane, wetland, estuary, barrier island, swamp PLACES Appalachian Mountains, Appalachian
More informationModern scientific theory relies on the collection of supporting data that is observable, measurable and repeatable.
Modern scientific theory relies on the collection of supporting data that is observable, measurable and repeatable. Primary data is data collected by the observer. In the picture, the rock in the geologist
More informationDirected Reading. Section: Precambrian Time and the Paleozoic Era EVOLUTION. beginning of life is called. to. PRECAMBRIAN TIME.
Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: Precambrian Time and the Paleozoic Era 1. Where is the geologic history of Earth recorded? 2. What kind of information can scientists get from the types of rock
More informationYEAR 12 HUMAN BIOLOGY EVOLUTION / NATURAL SELECTION TEST TOTAL MARKS :
YEAR 12 HUMAN BIOLOGY EVOLUTION / NATURAL SELECTION TEST TOTAL MARKS : 1.Natural selection is occurring in a population. Which of the following statements is CORRECT? The population must be completely
More informationdiscussion of North America s physical features, including its landforms and bodies of
Chapter 7 Natural Environments of North America Chapter 7 focuses on the natural environments of North America. The chapter opens with a discussion of North America s physical features, including its landforms
More informationhttps://goo.gl/buxfyv HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY
https://goo.gl/buxfyv HISTORICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY How do we reconstruct the origin, dispersal, and extinction of taxa? How historical events have affect the biology on the planet? Changing climate and physical
More information1. Uniformitarianism, or Actualism. 2. Multiple Working Hypotheses. 3. Principle of Parsimony 4. Inductive - Deductive Reasoning 5.
1. Uniformitarianism, or Actualism. 2. Multiple Working Hypotheses. 3. Principle of Parsimony 4. Inductive - Deductive Reasoning 5. Scientific Proof vs. Absolute Proof 6. Retrodiction prediction in a backward
More informationChapter 7. Evolution and the Fossil Record
Chapter 7 Evolution and the Fossil Record 1 Guiding Questions What lines of evidence convinced Charles Darwin that organic evolution produced the species of the modern world? What are the two components
More informationMass Extinctions &Their Consequences
Mass Extinctions &Their Consequences Microevolution and macroevolution Microevolution: evolution occurring within populations p Adaptive and neutral changes in allele frequencies Macroevolution: evolution
More informationEarly theories: Joseph Hooker (1853) vs. Charles Darwin (1859)
Gondwanan Plants of the Sydney Region Presentation Dr Peter Weston 25/11/2017 Honorary Research Associate, Science and Conservation Branch, Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust Summary: Dr Marilyn Cross,
More informationMaps and Globes. By Kennedy s Korner
Maps and Globes By Kennedy s Korner Map Key or Symbols Maps use symbols to show places and things on Earth. Symbols are drawings that stand for something real. A map key tells you what each symbol stands
More informationQuestion #1: What are some ways that you think the climate may have changed in the area where you live over the past million years?
Reading 5.2 Environmental Change Think about the area where you live. You may see changes in the landscape in that area over a year. Some of those changes are weather related. Others are due to how the
More informationSpecies diversification in space: biogeographic patterns
Species diversification in space: biogeographic patterns Outline Endemism and cosmopolitanism Disjunctions Biogeographic regions Barriers and interchanges Divergence and convergence Biogeographic patterns
More information7A Evidence of Evolution
7A Evidence of Evolution Fossil Evidence & Biogeography 7A analyze and evaluate how evidence of common ancestry among groups is provided by the fossil record, biogeography, and homologies, including anatomical,
More informationLesson 1 Syllabus Reference
Lesson 1 Syllabus Reference Outcomes A student Explains how biological understanding has advanced through scientific discoveries, technological developments and the needs of society. Content The theory
More informationEVOLUTION: EVIDENCE AND THEORY
Name Class Date CHAPTER 15 TEST EVOLUTION: EVIDENCE AND THEORY MATCHING Write the correct letter in the blank before each numbered term. 1. natural selection 2. fitness 3. acquired trait 4. biogeography
More information5 Time Marches On. TAKE A LOOK 1. Identify What kinds of organisms formed the fossils in the picture?
CHAPTER 6 5 Time Marches On SECTION The Rock and Fossil Record BEFORE YOU READ After you read this section, you should be able to answer these questions: How do geologists measure time? How has life changed
More informationNatural Selection. Professor Andrea Garrison Biology 3A Illustrations 2011 Pearson Education, Inc., unless otherwise noted
Natural Selection Professor Andrea Garrison Biology 3A Illustrations 2011 Pearson Education, Inc., unless otherwise noted Natural Selection Mechanism for change in species over time Proposed by Charles
More informationHistorical Biogeography. Historical Biogeography. Systematics
Historical Biogeography I. Definitions II. Fossils: problems with fossil record why fossils are important III. Phylogeny IV. Phenetics VI. Phylogenetic Classification Disjunctions debunked: Examples VII.
More informationScience in the News - Plate Tectonics 1. Story
Science in the News - Plate Tectonics 1. Story Scientists who study the Earth tell us the continents and ocean floors are always moving. This movement sometimes can be violent, causing death and destruction.
More informationIn the space provided, write the letter of the definition that best matches the term or phrase.
Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: The Changing Continents 1. What is the result of slow movements of tectonic plates? RESHAPING EARTH S CRUST In the space provided, write the letter of the definition
More informationCh 22 Descent with Modification Darwin was influenced by the work of others during his time.
AP Biology Ch 22 Descent with Modification Name 22.1 Darwin was influenced by the work of others during his time., the study of fossils, was largely developed by Georges Cuvier. His explanation for why
More information16.1 Darwin s Voyage of Discovery Lesson Objectives State Charles Darwin s contribution to science.
16.1 Darwin s Voyage of Discovery Lesson Objectives State Charles Darwin s contribution to science. Describe the three patterns of biodiversity noted by Darwin. Darwin s Epic Journey 1. THINK VISUALLY
More informationLecture 19 Darwin on Geographic Distribution of Species
Lecture 19 Darwin on Geographic Distribution of Species Patrick Maher Scientific Thought II Spring 2010 Continents Differences between continents Flora and fauna are very different in the new world (America),
More informationPlate Tectonic Vocabulary Chapter 10 Pages
Name: Period: Plate Tectonic Vocabulary Chapter 10 Pages 239-260 Vocabulary Word What is this? What are some examples? What does it look like? (draw a picture or diagram) Continental drift Mid-ocean ridge
More informationMOR TIME TEACHERS. ONCE UPON A TIME Activity Overview BIG IDEA
MOR TIME 04 Activity Overview BIG IDEA OBJECTIVE BACKGROUND The geologic time scale can be challenging for students to understand. This activity explores how scientists divide the Earth s long history
More informationAnswers Evolution. Year 10 Science Chapter 3. p39 1 Evolve means to develop gradually.
Answers Evolution Year 10 Science Chapter 3 p39 1 Evolve means to develop gradually. 2 The basic idea of biological evolution is that all species on Earth share a common ancestor. The common ancestor,
More informationBiology Slide 1 of 41
Biology 1 of 41 15-3 Darwin Presents His Case 2 of 41 15-3 Darwin Presents His Case Publication of On the Origin of Species Publication of On the Origin of Species Darwin filled notebooks with his ideas
More informationBiology. Slide 1 of 41. End Show. Copyright Pearson Prentice Hall
Biology 1 of 41 15-3 Darwin Presents His Case 2 of 41 Publication of On the Origin of Species Publication of On the Origin of Species Darwin filled notebooks with his ideas about species diversity and
More informationPublication of On the Origin of Species Darwin Presents His Case
Publication of On the Origin of Species Publication of On the Origin of Species Darwin filled notebooks with his ideas about species diversity and the evolution process. Darwin was stunned and disturbed
More information1/24/2008. The Creation of Two Worlds. The Creation of Two Worlds. The Creation of Two Worlds. Topics of Discussion. I. The Earth Calendar
Topics of Discussion I. The Earth Calendar II. 225-200 MYA: Pangaea III. Centralization of Evolution IV. 200-180 MYA: Break-up of Pangaea V. Decentralization of Evolution VI. Hominids and Humans VII. Culture
More informationQuestions Sometimes Asked About the Theory of Evolution
Chapter 9: Evidence for Plant and Animal Evolution Questions Sometimes Asked About the Theory of Evolution Many questions about evolution arise in Christian circles. We ll discuss just a few that we frequently
More informationWarm Up Name the 5 different types of fossils
Warm Up Name the 5 different types of fossils Timeline that organizes the events in Earths history. Earth is about 4.7 billion years old. More complex organism such as land plants and fish evolved only
More informationUnit 6: Interpreting Earth s History
Unit 6: Interpreting Earth s History How do we know that the Earth has changed over time? Regent s Earth Science Name: Topics Relative Dating Uniformitarianism Superposition Original Horizontality Igneous
More informationBiogeography of Islands
Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography of Islands Biogeography
More informationEQ: Discuss main geographic landforms of the U.S. & Canada and examine varied landforms in relation to their lifestyles.
EQ: Discuss main geographic landforms of the U.S. & Canada and examine varied landforms in relation to their lifestyles. Places & Terms for Discussion Appalachian Mountains Great Plains Canadian Shield
More informationFrom VOA Learning English, this is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS, in Special English. I m Kelly Jean Kelly.
From VOA Learning English, this is SCIENCE IN THE NEWS, in Special English. I m Kelly Jean Kelly. And I m Christopher Cruise. Scientists who study the Earth tell us the continents and ocean floors are
More informationWhat is PLATE TECTONICS?
What is PLATE TECTONICS? It s the theory that states: The surface of the Earth is not fixed and eternal, but it is in constant everchanging motion. If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that
More informationThe Creation of Two Worlds
Topics of Discussion I. The Earth Calendar II. 225-200 MYA: Pangaea III. Centralization of Evolution IV. 200-180 MYA: Break-up of Pangaea V. Decentralization of Evolution VI. Hominids and Humans VII. Culture
More information19. When allele frequencies change as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population
CP Biology: Evolution Name: Per: Directions: Use your textbook to help you answer the practice questions for each chapter. It is important that you READ the chapter sections and not just search for the
More informationOutline. Evolution: Evidence, Selection and Adaptation. Key Concepts: One of the key words of our modern time is Evolution
Evolution: Evidence, Selection and Adaptation One of the key words of our modern time is Evolution u 1. Key concepts Outline u 2. Early Beliefs, and New Discoveries u 3. Darwin developed the theory of
More informationEvidence of Evolution. Chapter 17
Evidence of Evolution Chapter 17 Overview Current species are descendents of ancestral species Evolution is both a pattern and a process Origin of Species Views of Aristotle Fixed species Old Testament
More informationLecture Outlines PowerPoint. Chapter 12 Earth Science 11e Tarbuck/Lutgens
Lecture Outlines PowerPoint Chapter 12 Earth Science 11e Tarbuck/Lutgens 2006 Pearson Prentice Hall This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is provided solely for the use of instructors
More informationGeologic Time on a Strip of Paper
Geologic Time on a Strip of Paper Introduction The Earth is 4,600,000,000 years old. That s 4.6 billion years! But what does this mean? This activity is designed to help you get a feel for the age of the
More informationEvidences of Evolution (Clues)
Evidences of Evolution (Clues) Darwin stated that all organisms descended from a common ancestor Darwin based his theory of Natural Selection on observations of: Traits, geographical distribution, selective
More informationGeologic Time. What have scientists learned about Earth s past by studying rocks and fossils?
Name Geologic Time What have scientists learned about Earth s past by studying rocks and fossils? Before You Read Before you read the chapter, think about what you know about geologic time Record your
More informationChapter 02 The Sea Floor
Chapter 02 The Sea Floor Multiple Choice Questions 1. One of the following is not one of the world's major ocean basins: A. Atlantic Ocean B. Arctic Ocean C. Indian Ocean D. Antarctic Ocean E. Pacific
More information15.3 Darwin Presents his Case. Biology Mr. Hines
15.3 Darwin Presents his Case Biology Mr. Hines Darwin returned to England with a wealth of new data. He brought many specimens from the Galapagos to further his studies and to present his data to others.
More informationUse Target Reading Skills
The Geologic Time Scale (pp. 286 297) This section tells why the geologic time scale is used to show Earth s history, and what the organisms were like and the major events that happened in the different
More information8/23/2014. Phylogeny and the Tree of Life
Phylogeny and the Tree of Life Chapter 26 Objectives Explain the following characteristics of the Linnaean system of classification: a. binomial nomenclature b. hierarchical classification List the major
More informationLecture 11 Friday, October 21, 2011
Lecture 11 Friday, October 21, 2011 Phylogenetic tree (phylogeny) Darwin and classification: In the Origin, Darwin said that descent from a common ancestral species could explain why the Linnaean system
More informationFossil Clues Teacher s Notes
Fossils are the remains of living things which have been changed into rock. The father of modern geology, James Hutton, said that we can interpret the nature of creatures from the past and the environment
More informationVoyage of the Beagle
Diversity 0The variety of living things that inhabit the Earth is called biological diversity. 0Evolutionary theory is a collection of scientific facts, observations, and hypotheses. 0This theory is a
More informationPangaea to the Present Lesson #2
Pangaea to the Present Lesson #2 The Earth is a dynamic or constantly changing planet. The thin, fragile plates slide very slowly on the mantle's upper layer. This sliding of the plates is caused by the
More informationBiology Slide 1 of 20
Biology 1 of 20 2 of 20 15-1 The Puzzle of Life's Evolution is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms. A scientific theory is a well-supported testable explanation
More informationEVOLUTIONARY THEORY Evolution affects EVERY living thing All life is descended from the Original Life Form: Ur-slime DARWIN figured out how it could
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY Evolution affects EVERY living thing All life is descended from the Original Life Form: Ur-slime DARWIN figured out how it could happen Had 100 years of precedents Natural History Hobby
More informationPatterns of evolution
To branch or not to branch Patterns of evolution Chapter 3 Cladogenesis lineages branch into two or more lines Anagenesis evolutionary change in a lineage without branching Anagenesis and Cladogenesis
More information15 Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection 15-1 The Puzzle of Life's Diversity
15-1 The Puzzle of Life's Diversity Study the photo of leaves... What else do you see? How did the Leaf Mantis come to look like decaying leaves? Define evolution in its simplest meaning? Review the meaning
More informationMechanisms of Evolution Darwinian Evolution
Mechanisms of Evolution Darwinian Evolution Descent with modification by means of natural selection All life has descended from a common ancestor The mechanism of modification is natural selection Concept
More informationThe Evolution of Biological Diversity. All living organisms are descended from an ancestor that arose between 3 and 4 billion years ago.
The Evolution of Biological Diversity All living organisms are descended from an ancestor that arose between 3 and 4 billion years ago. The diversity of life on earth currently includes some 5 to 50 million
More informationIt is not the strongest or the most intelligent who will survive but those what can best manage change Charles Darwin
The voyage of the Beagle (1831-1836) Charles Darwin studied the geology, animals, plants and peoples of the countries that he visited, which eventually led him to realise that living things must evolve
More informationMicroevolutionary changes show us how populations change over time. When do we know that distinctly new species have evolved?
Microevolutionary changes show us how populations change over time. When do we know that distinctly new species have evolved? Critical to determining the limits of a species is understanding if two populations
More informationGrand Unifying Theory of everything... for the Geosciences, at least!
Plate Tectonics: Grand Unifying Theory of everything... for the Geosciences, at least! The Earth s lithosphere, composed of Oceanic and continental crust, is broken up into pieces that move and interact
More informationScholarship 2015 Biology
93101Q 931012 S Scholarship 2015 Biology 9.30 a.m. Tuesday 10 November 2015 Time allowed: Three hours Total marks: 24 QUESTION BOOKLET There are THREE questions in this booklet. Answer ALL questions. Write
More informationBiology Slide 1 of 20
Biology 1 of 20 2 of 20 15-1 The Puzzle of Life's 1. Evolution: process where modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms. 2. scientific theory: well-supported testable explanation of phenomena
More informationName. Ecology & Evolutionary Biology 2245/2245W Exam 2 1 March 2014
Name 1 Ecology & Evolutionary Biology 2245/2245W Exam 2 1 March 2014 1. Use the following matrix of nucleotide sequence data and the corresponding tree to answer questions a. through h. below. (16 points)
More informationPrimary & Secondary Data Collection - Teacher Notes
Modern scientific theory relies on the collection of supporting data that is observable, measurable and repeatable. The explanations of how mountains were raised, volcanoes erupt and the Earth s surface
More informationEarth s Evolution Through Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Earth s Evolution Through Time Earth 9 th edition Chapter 22 Earth s evolution: summary in haiku form Super-continents have come and gone many times: giant bumper cars.
More informationChapter Review USING KEY TERMS UNDERSTANDING KEY IDEAS. Skills Worksheet. Multiple Choice
Skills Worksheet Chapter Review USING KEY TERMS Complete each of the following sentences by choosing the correct term from the word bank. adaptation evolution species natural selection generation time
More informationVocab. ! Evolution - change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms
Vocab! Evolution - change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms! Theory - well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations
More informationDirected Reading. Section: How Mountains Form MOUNTAIN RANGES AND SYSTEMS. Skills Worksheet
Skills Worksheet Directed Reading Section: How Mountains Form 1. How high is Mount Everest? a. about 1980 km above sea level b. more than 8 km below sea level c. more than 8 km above sea level d. more
More information