Mechanisms of Evolution Darwinian Evolution
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1 Mechanisms of Evolution Darwinian Evolution Descent with modification by means of natural selection All life has descended from a common ancestor The mechanism of modification is natural selection Concept 22.3: Darwin s theory explains a wide range of observations Darwin s theory of evolution Continues to be tested by how effectively it can account for additional observations and experimental outcomes Natural Selection in Action Two examples provide evidence for natural selection Differential Predation in Guppy Populations Researchers have observed natural selection Leading to adaptive evolution in guppy populations EXPERIMENT Reznick and Endler transplanted guppies from pike-cichlid pools to killifish pools and measured the average age and size of guppies at maturity over an 11-year period (30 to 60 generations). Pools with killifish, but not guppies prior to transplant Predator: Killifish; preys mainly on small guppies Experimental transplant of guppies Guppies: Larger at sexual maturity than those in pike-cichlid pools Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on large guppies Guppies: Smaller at sexual maturity than those in killifish pools Figure
2 Weight of guppies at maturity (mg) Age of guppies at maturity (days) RESULTS After 11 years, the average size and age at maturity of guppies in the transplanted populations increased compared to those of guppies in control populations Males Females Males Females Control Population: Guppies from pools with pike-cichlids as predators Experimental Population: Guppies transplanted to pools with killifish as predators CONCLUSION Reznick and Endler concluded that the change in predator resulted in different variations in the population (larger size and slower maturation) being favored. Over a relatively short time, this altered selection pressure resulted in an observable evolutionary change in the experimental population. The Evolution of Drug- Resistant HIV In humans, the use of drugs Selects for pathogens that through chance mutations are resistant to the drugs effects Natural selection is a cause of adaptive evolution Researchers have developed numerous drugs to combat HIV But using these medications selects for viruses resistant to the drugs Percent of HIV resistant to 3TC Patient No. 1 Patient No. 2 Patient No. 3 Weeks Figure
3 Bacteria and viruses are able to evolve rapidly because they reproduce rapidly and can pass on advantageous mutations to vast numbers of new individuals very quickly. Selection for beak size in a Galápagos population of the medium ground finch Lines of Evidence that Support Natural Selection as a Mechanism of Evolution 3
4 Homology, Biogeography, and the Fossil Record Evolutionary theory Provides a cohesive explanation for many kinds of observations Homology Homology is similarity resulting from common ancestry Anatomical Homologies Homologous structures between organisms Are anatomical resemblances that represent variations on a structural theme that was present in a common ancestor Human Cat Whale Bat Vestigial organs Are some of the most intriguing homologous structures Are remnants of structures that served important functions in the organism s ancestors 4
5 Embryological Homologies Comparative embryology Reveals additional anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms Pharyngeal pouches Post-anal tail Chick embryo Figure Human embryo Molecular Homologies Biologists also observe homologies among organisms at the molecular level Such as genes that are shared among organisms inherited from a common ancestor The more closely related two organisms are, the more sequences they share Anatomical resemblances among species are generally reflected in their molecules, their genes, and their gene products Species Human Percent of Amino Acids That Are Identical to the Amino Acids in a Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide 100% Rhesus monkey 95% Mouse 87% Chicken 69% Frog 54% Figure Lamprey 14% 5
6 Molecular biology has substantiated Darwin s idea that all forms of life are related to some extent through branching descent from the earliest organisms. Even taxonomically distant organisms have some proteins in common. The common genetic code has been passed through all branches of life since its beginning in an early form of life. DNA Sequence Cytochrome C Cytochrome C of different orders of mammals and birds differs in 2-17 amino acids, classes of vertebrates in 7-38, and vertebrates and insects in 23-41; and animals differ from yeasts and molds in amino acids. We can calculate the minimum numbers of single mutations needed to change the cytochrome C of one species into that of another. # of mutations between cytochrome C of humans versus other living beings are: Monkey1, Chicken18, Dog13, Penguin18, Horse17, Turtle19, Donkey16, Rattlesnake20, Pig13, Fish(tuna)31, Rabbit12, Fly33, Kangaroo12, Moth36, Duck17, Mold63, Pigeon16, Yeast56 Homologies and the Tree of Life The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree of life Can explain the homologies that researchers have observed 6
7 Phylogeny of the major groups of extant vertebrates Species Human Percent of Amino Acids That Are Identical to the Amino Acids in a Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide 100% Rhesus monkey 95% Mouse 87% Chicken 69% Frog 54% Figure Lamprey 14% Biogeography Darwin s observations of the geographic distribution of species Formed an important part of his theory of evolution The biogeographical patterns he observed only made sense in the context of evolution Review the material from lecture one pertaining to species on the continent of South America and the Galapagos Islands Biogeography Is the study of the geographical distribution of species. Islands have many endemic species which are closely related to species on the nearest mainland The occurrence of identical late Paleozoic fossils of plants and animals in Africa and South America is explained by continental drift 7
8 Some similar mammals that have adapted to similar environments Have evolved independently from different ancestors Sugar glider NORTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA Flying squirrel Figure The Fossil Record The succession of forms observed in the fossil record Is consistent with other inferences about the major branches of descent in the tree of life Figure 25.1 A gallery of fossils 8
9 Fossil evidence: supported by other lines of evidence Prokaryotes are placed as the ancestors of all life by evidence from cell biology, biochemistry and molecular biology The fossil record shows the chronological appearance of vertebrates as sequential with fish first, followed by amphibians, reptiles and then mammals and birds The Darwinian view of life Predicts that evolutionary transitions should leave signs in the fossil record Paleontologists Have discovered fossils of many such transitional forms Figure Many lineages are largely complete Planktonic organism lineages spanning 100 million years, including such groups as foraminifera, radiolaria, diatoms and coccolithophorids Horses Whales Elephants 9
10 Figure The branched evolution of horses Systematics Taxonomy and Classification as used in the science of Systematics often reflect actual evolutionary relationships as verified by other lines of evidence Darwin realized the connection between his Tree of Life and Linnaeus classification hierarchy What Is Theoretical about the Darwinian View of Life? Theory does not mean the same thing in science that it does in everyday language In science, a theory Is based on laws, hypotheses, observations and inferences Accounts for many observations and data and attempts to explain and integrate a great variety of phenomena Must be testable 10
11 Examples of Scientific Theories Gravitational Theory Heliocentrism Cell Theory Germ Theory Electromagnetic Theory Quantum Mechanics Plate Tectonics The criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability, or refutability, or testability. Darwin s theory of evolution by natural selection Integrates diverse areas of biological study and stimulates many new research questions Has been the reigning paradigm in biology for the past 150 years Every question in biology and medicine is an evolutionary question We may discover new mechanisms of evolution, but the fact that the diversity of life on Earth has evolved from a common ancestor will not change. In science "fact" can only mean "confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional consent." View the video: Isn t Evolution Just a Theory at the PBS Website below s/teachstuds/svideos.html 11
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