Atoms are not the smallest thing. Growing evidence for the divisibility of the indivisible
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1 Atoms are not the smallest thing Growing evidence for the divisibility of the indivisible
2 Learning Objectives Describe the three particles in the atom Define atomic number and mass number Describe isotopes Write symbols for elements Determine the numbers of particles in any atom from the element symbol
3 Electrostatics and electricity Static electricity was observed by Thales (300 BC). Some charged objects repel and others attract The voltaic cell (Volta, 18 th century) generated electrical current from chemical reactions Mechanical electrical generation was achieved in 1825 The point: Atoms are neutral. If indivisible, where do electrical charges come from?
4 Faraday s prescience Although we know nothing of what an atom is, we cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle; and though we are in equal ignorance of electricity, there is an immensity of facts which justify us in believing that the atoms of matter are associated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking qualities, and amongst them their chemical affinity.
5 Ray of hope 1858 Discovery of cathode rays by Julius Plucker Application of a large voltage across an evacuated tube causes a current to flow. The current flow is accompanied by radiation from the excited gas molecules How does the neutral and indivisible atom create a charge?
6 Cathode rays are negatively charged particles 1897.J. Thomson demonstrates that cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles, which have a mass very much less than that of the atom. The first sighting of the electron.
7 The Thomson model of the atom "I regard the atom as containing a large number of smaller bodies which I will call corpuscles, these corpuscles are equal to each other... In the normal atom, this assemblage of corpuscles forms a system which is electrically neutral. Though the individual corpuscles behave like negative ions, yet when they are assembled in a neutral atom the negative effect is balanced by something which causes the space through which the corpuscles are spread to act as if it had a charge of positive electricity equal in amount to the sum of the negative charges of the corpuscles
8 X-rays and atoms invisible rays 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovers X- rays while doing experiments with cathode rays
9 1896 Radioactivity: the search for invisible rays Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which suggested that some atoms were capable of decomposing to give smaller particles Frederick Soddy and William Ramsey demonstrated that uranium decayed to give helium. Direct proof that atoms were divisible.
10 1909 Ernest Rutherford s gold foil experiment The atom s inner secrets exposed by its own offspring
11 Hierarchy of discovery The path to knowledge occurs in steps, each depending on a previous advance The battery and electricity: Volta 1799 Cathode rays: Plucker 1858 X-rays: Roentgen 1895 Radioactivity: Becquerel 1896 The nucleus: Rutherford 1909
12 The nucleus Tiny Incredibly dense contains all the mass of the atom Positively charged Contains protons (charged) and neutrons (neutral) not discovered until much later
13 Summary of Atom Pictures Dalton: Indivisible atom Thomson: Electrons Rutherford: Nucleus
14 Atoms are mostly nothing
15 Comparison of subatomic particles Particle Mass (g) Mass (amu) Charge (C) Charge (relative) Electron x x x Proton x x Neutron x
16 Atoms are neutral: # electrons = # protons Number of protons in nucleus = atomic number (Z) and indicates element's identity. For neutral atom, Z = number of electrons around nucleus.
17 Isotopes and neutrons Variations on the number of neutrons in the nucleus give rise to different isotopes of the same element. 1 1 H 2 1 H 3 1 H
18 Element notation: Atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) Mass number (A): number of protons + neutrons 13 6 C Element symbol Atomic number (Z): number of protons Counting particles: Number of electrons = number of protons = 6 = Z Number of neutrons = mass number (A) atomic number (Z) (13 6 = 7)
19 Isotopes and relative atomic masses It is important to be able to calculate the average mass of a mixture of isotopes of a given element We need the distribution of the isotopes and their mass numbers For chlorine there are isotopes with mass numbers 35 and 37, with relative abundances of 75.8 % and 24.2 % respectively Average atomic mass = ( 35x0.758) (37x0.242) 35.5
20 Practice with average atomic mass
21 What of the electrons? We now understand the atom to contain a tiny positively charged massive nucleus surrounded by a comparatively vast empty space containing the electrons When atoms combine the electrons must interact We need to understand the arrangement of electrons in the atom
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