The Science of Clays Applications in Industry, Engineering and Environment

Transcription

1 Contents i The Science of Clays Applications in Industry, Engineering and Environment

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3 The Science of Clays Applications in Industry, Engineering and Environment Swapna Mukherjee Formerly at Geological Survey of India Kolkata, India With contributions by Bhaskar Ghosh Kolkata, India

4 A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN ISBN (HB) (e-book) Copublished by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands with Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. Sold and distributed in North, Central and South America by Springer, 233 Spring Street, New York 10013, USA. In all other countries, except SAARC countries Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka sold and distributed by Springer, Haberstrasse 7, D Heidelberg, Germany. In SAARC countries Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka sold and distributed by Capital Publishing Company, 7/28, Mahaveer Street, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi, , India. Cover photos credit (Left to right): archiexpo.com; en.wikipedia.org; pubs.usgs.gov; and americanpreppersnetwork.com Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved 2013 Capital Publishing Company No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in India.

5 To my parents

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7 FOREWORD Lord Byron in one of his poems called the clays light and worthless. Truth can never be so diametrically opposite. Twenty four by seven we use something routed through clay, from our food to shelter to power to medicine to utensils and to what not! It is so omnipresent that we rarely recognise its actual significance. The Science of Clays by Dr (Ms) Swapna Mukherjee is, thus, another eye-opener to the scientific community. The book is an outcome of her life-long association with the Mineral Physics Division of the Geological Survey of India and I feel privileged to compose a few lines on her challenging mission. The book has been thoughtfully divided into three parts, viz., the basics, the industrial interface and the environmental impact. The first part titled Understanding the clays: Their formation, constituents and properties describes their origin and evolution, chemical composition and structure and finally their chemical and physical properties. The second part under the title Industrial uses of clays and argilloids deals with the applications in glass, ceramic, refractory, cement, medicine, electrical and mining industries as also in agriculture. The third part, Clays in the environment, illustrates the two poles the beneficial and hazardous consequences. The basic properties actually determine their industrial use for a particular purpose and hence they are analysed in depth vis a vis their applications. Variation in quality and quantity in the natural source and even their modifications are discussed. Materials which have clay-like properties are also included. Clays are known to buffer many hazards but at the same time their fine particles cause both air and water pollution. The author presents an unbiased balanced view on the environment.

8 viii Foreword By and large, the book is a commendable systematic scientific document and a must reading material for all subject matter specialists dealing with clays in any manner whatsoever. Kunal Ghosh, PhD, DSc, FNA Senior Scientist & Council Member Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi Retired Professor & HoD, University of Calcutta, Kolkata Formerly Vice-President The Clay Minerals Society of India, New Delhi

9 PREFACE The comprehensive scientific study of any object involves obtaining the basic idea about it, its socio-economic applications, and its environmental impacts, if any. An integrated study of clays that unifies these three widely separated aspects viz., the science of clays (that involves the understanding of their origin, composition, internal structure, physical and chemical properties etc.); the industrial uses of clays; and the applications of clays in environmental protection are therefore essential for laying the foundation of academic researches, industrial developments and environmental sustainability. Besides, further research and development on the industrial and environmental applications of clays necessitate an understanding on the relation between the attributes (composition, internal structure, physical and chemical properties) of clay and its usability for a specific purpose. For example, zeolites in clays are used as drilling mud for their tunnel type of crystal structure that enables absorption of some typical fluids and their extrication on heating; kaolinites for their property of hardening on being heated are used for various ceramic productions; the ion-exchange property of clays enable them to be utilized in radioactive waste disposal etc. Few books cover, in a multidisciplinary approach, the comprehensive explanations for the geological, physical, chemical, industrial and environmental aspects of the clays and the interrelationship of these aspects. This book endeavours to provide a complete description of all these widely varying aspects to fill up this hiatus. The book is divided into three parts. At the beginning of Part I, precise and unambiguous definitions of clays and their constituents are given along with clear and succinct explanations. The subsequent discussions of Part I cover the vast and diverse spheres of the science of clays that include their origin and evolution in nature; their composition and internal structure; their physical and chemical properties; and soil mechanics. The analytical techniques for determination of clay constituents are also described in this part.

10 x Preface Part II describes the application of clays in industry in different forms, with an emphasis on the substitution of metals with clays, e.g. ceramics etc. Exhaustive descriptions are given here for uses of clays and their derivatives in various industries, like the abrasive, insulators, drilling fluids, ceramics (modern and traditional uses), cements, fillers, plasters, surface coatings, fertilizers, batteries, soil conditioners, pigments, medicines and electronic equipments. The relation between the physical and chemical properties of clays and their industrial applications are explained as much as practicable. Part III comprises a thorough description of the roles of clays in environmental protection and degradation. The environmental impacts of clay mining, beneficiation and clay-related industries; and the natural processes by which clays protect the environment are explained in the initial chapters of Part III. The next chapters introduce the application of clays and their derivatives to resist pollution, recycling of industrial waste products and waste managements (for both toxic and non-toxic wastes). The information provided in these three parts is expected to provide the readers a comprehensive idea regarding various aspects of clays and an understanding of the relationship between different disciplines of physical, chemical, earth and environmental sciences that covers these aspects. For the students, research scholars and professionals of various branches of technology, earth sciences and environmental sciences, this book aims at giving a clear conception of various branches of clay mineralogy, their interrelations and to provide a more comprehensive knowledge of their own disciplines. I express my deep appreciation to Shri Bhaskar Ghosh, my collaborator in this book, a researcher in Presidency University, Kolkata and Assistant Professor in Jogamaya Devi College, University of Calcutta, Kolkata. He has written the first chapters of each part of this book (i.e. chapters 1, 7 and 16) giving an overview of the contents of subsequent chapters. February, 2013 Swapna Mukherjee

11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book has resulted from the immense amount of help and encouragement from many of my friends, colleagues and scientists working in related areas. I am particularly indebted to the Geological Survey of India, my colleagues there of different departments and laboratories for providing various kinds of help and suggestions. Thanks to Prof. H.N. Banerjee of the Geology department of Presidency University, Kolkata. My sincere thanks to Prof. Sugata Hazra, Director of School of Oceanography, J.U. and Prof. P. Sengupta, Geology Dept., J.U. I appreciate the interactive help from Mousumi Banerjee, Geolgist of G.S.I. Thanks are particularly due to Miss Dola Chakraborty for the technical help throughout the work. Interactions from the students, while teaching in different universities, helped me to frame the structure of the course to fulfill their current need in this field. The success of the book will depend on how the students for whom this is written are benefited and how this is received by the teachers who will guide them in this subject. Last but not the least, this book is the outcome of continuous support, encouragement and help from my husband, Prof. P.K. Mukherjee and daughter, Swagata.

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13 CONTENTS Foreword Preface Acknowledgements vii ix xi PART I Clays: Their Formation, Constituents and Properties 1. Clays and Their Constituents Definitions and a Brief Overview 3 Bhaskar Ghosh 1.1 Clay: Definition The Constituents of Clay Occurrence of Clay Minerals in Nature Formation of Clay Minerals in Nature Different Types of Clays Classification and Composition of Clay Constituents Introduction Classification of Clay Minerals Associated Minerals and Phases Internal Structures of Clay Minerals Introduction Effect of Temperature Variation on Cation Exchange Variation Silicate Class Subclass Phyllosilicate (Layered/Sheet Silicate) Internal Structure of Kaolinite Group Internal Structure of Illite Group Internal Structure of Smectite Group 42

14 xiv Contents 3.8 Internal Structure of Vermiculite Group Internal Structure of Palygorskite-Sepiolite Group Chemical Properties of Clay and Thermodynamic Aspects Introduction Thermodynamic System The Parameters Describing Thermodynamics Physical Properties of Clay and Soil Mechanics Physical Properties Soil Soil Formation Soil Horizons Soil Genesis Soil Mechanics Atterberg Limits Plasticity Index Activity Analytical Techniques for Clay Studies Different Analyses and Their Uses X-Ray Techniques X-Ray Powder Diffraction (XRD) X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Electron Microscopy Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) Applications of Electron Microscopy Electron Probe Micro Analyser IR Spectroscopy Raman Spectroscopic Analysis Types of Raman Spectroscope Applications of Raman Spectroscopy Thermal Analysis Applications of Thermal Analysis 106 PART II Industrial Uses of Clays and Argilloids 7. Clays: Industrial Applications and Their Determinants 113 Bhaskar Ghosh 7.1 Ceramics: Potteries, Refractories and Porcelain Fillers in Rubber Industries Fillers and Coatings in Paper Industry Filters and Absorbents Drilling Fluids 119

15 Contents xv 8. Traditional and Modern Uses of Ceramics, Glass and Refractories 123 Ceramics 8.1 Introduction Properties of Ceramics Mechanical Properties Un-fired and Fired Properties Optical Properties 8.6 Development of Advanced Ceramics Using Modern Techniques Use of Ceramics Bioceramics Classification of Clay-based Ceramics Ceramic Processing Method 132 Glass 8.11 Introduction Glass Ingredients Manufacturing of Glass Mechanical Finishing Chemical Finishing Glassmaking in the Laboratory Properties Economic Aspects 143 Refractory 8.19 Introduction Classification of Refractory Materials Properties of Refractory General Mode of Manufacture Clays for Medicines and Fillers Role of Clay in Medical Science Adsorptive Properties of Clay Minerals Usefulness of Clay in Clinical Aspect Interactions of Clay Minerals with Gastrointestinal Mucus Medical Care Clay Minerals in Pharmaceutical Formulations Main Properties of Clay Minerals Useful in Aesthetic Medicines Importance of Fillers Types of Filler Clay as Filler Uses of Filler 156

16 xvi Contents 10. Soil Conditioner and Fertilizer Industry Necessity of Soil Conditioner Activities of Soil Conditioner Types of Soil Conditioners Measuring Physical Properties of Soil Changing Physical Properties of Soil Fertilizer Several Functions of Fertilizers Fertilization of Soils Types of Fertilizers Disadvantages of Inorganic Fertilizer Organic Fertilizer Negative Environmental Effects Use of Clays as Drilling Fluids and Filters Drilling Fluids Types of Drilling Fluid Function Maintain Well-bore Stability Minimizing Formation Damage Cool, Lubricate and Support the Bit and Drilling Assembly Ensure Adequate Formation Evaluation Control Corrosion (at Acceptable Level) Facilitate Cementing and Completion Composition of Drilling Mud Use of Clays as Filters Water Filtration for Household Purpose Large Scale Filtration for Purifying Water Desalination of Water (in Large Scale) Use of Bleaching Clays in Processing Edible Oils Filter Materials for Smoking Items like Cigars Clays and Associated Materials in Surface Coatings and Pigments Purpose of Surface Coatings Chemical Vapour Deposition Physical Vapour Deposition Chemical and Electrochemical Techniques Spraying Optical Coating Characteristics of Pigments Constituents of Pigments Physical Basis Manufacturing and Industrial Standards 191

17 Contents xvii Attributes of Pigments Biological Pigments Using Pigments Kaolin Clay and Its Features Some Types of Pigments Applications of Kaolin Clay Clays and Associated Minerals in Cement and Plasters The Evolution of Cement Early Uses Modern Cement Chemistry of Cement Types of Modern Cement Cement Manufacturing Use of Cement Portland Cement Portland Cement Blends Non-Portland Hydraulic Cements The Setting of Cement Types of Plasters Uses of Plaster Safety Measures in Plastering Clay and Associated Minerals in Battery Industry Manganese Mineral Development of Batteries Two Types of Batteries Principle of Operation Battery Cell Types Molten Salt Battery Reserve Battery Fastest Charging and Largest Batteries Battery Capacity and Discharging Battery Chemistry Home-made Cells Hazards Battery Lifetime Environmental Concerns Insulators Using Clays Introduction Material Electrical Insulation Thermal Insulation Building Insulation 224

18 xviii Contents 15.6 Breakdown Dielectric Breakdown Property Design Physics of Conduction in Solids Electronic Conduction in Insulator Uses Telegraph and Power Transmission Insulators Insulation of Antennas Mott Insulator Topological Insulator Properties and Applications of Topological Insulator Applications Planning Climate 233 PART III Clays in the Environment 16. Beneficial and Hazardous Aspects of Clays in Nature: A Brief Overview 237 Bhaskar Ghosh 16.1 Introduction Activating and Neutralizing Reactions and Their Controlling Factors The Role of Clay Minerals in Activating and Neutralizing Reactions Environmental Degradation by Clays Environmental Degradation by Clays from Waste Dumps Clays as Neutralizers against Environmental Protection Introduction Origin of Clays Clay-environment Interaction Clays and Soil Chemistry Clays and Landuse Practices Application of Clays for Removal of Pollutant Ions Role of Clay to Reduce Organic Pollutants Role of Pyrophyllite Clay as Neutralizer Environmental Degradations during Clay Mining and Beneficiation Introduction Clay Mining and Beneficiation Environmental Degradations Environmental and Human Exposure during Clay Mining 274

19 Contents xix 18.5 Environmental Management in Mines Case Studies Environmental Impacts of Clay-related Industries Introduction Background of Problems Environmental Impact of Different Clay-related Industries Causes for Environmental Impact with Clays Waste Water Treatment Application of Clay Derivatives as Pollution-resistants Recycling of Industrial Waste Products Introduction Generation of Waste Objectives Recycling Waste Treatment Processes Use of Clay in Waste Management Uses of Clays in Waste Managements: Toxic and Non-toxic Introduction Waste Management Different Types of Clays in Waste Management Waste Management: Toxic Waste Management: Non-toxic 321 Index 327