TECHNOLOGY OF WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION January 30, 2013

Transcription

1 TECHNOLOGY OF WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION January 30, 2013 The Johns Hopkins University Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences Advanced Academic Programs

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3 Overview of Presentation 1. Definitions of Chemical Weapon 2. Types of CW (seven) (The typology of CW) 3. Properties of CW (eight salient variables and their values) (The typology of CW) Includes Dispersal Considerations 4. Specific CW Agents

4 OVERALL GOAL OF PRESENTATION FOR CLASS TWO Having done over 500 pages of reading on chemical weapons, warfare, etc., one must then categorize salient aspects of the literature into a useful typology. Thus, the overall goal of this presentation is to assist students in the class requirements of: 1) Defining chemical weapons; 2) Identifying the seven types of CW; 3) Explaining, comparing, and contrasting the seven properties that CW are typically broken down into; 4) Identifying and understanding the seven most important salient variables with regard to dispersing chemical agents; and 5) Investigating and the most important agents for each CW type and for CW writ large.

5 TERMS CW Defining Chemical Weapons General Characterizing of CW 1. Lethality 2. Mode of Action 3. Speed of Action 4. Toxicity 5. Persistency 6. Agent Availability / Ease of Fabrication 7. Weaponization Dispersal Considerations 1. Availability of agent and/or precursors 2. Temperatures 3. Wind 4. Altitude 5. Moisture 6. Sunlight 7. Time of Day (e.g., upcoming sunlight/darkness, upcoming temp, etc.)

6 TERMS continued SPECIFIC CW AGENTS 1. Choking Agents o o o o Chlorine (CI) Phosgene (CG) Diphosgene Chloropicrin (PS) 2. Blister Agents (vesicants) o o o Mustard Sulfur (HD) Lewisite Phosgene Oxime 3. Blood Agents o o o o 4. Nerve Agents Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Zyklon B Cyanogen Chloride (CK) Hydrogen Sulfur ( Sour Gas ) o VX Soman GD 5. Incapacitating Agents BZ LSD 6. Riot Control Agents (RCAs) (LACRIMATOR OR EYE IRRITANT) CN : e. g., Mace CS: Tear Gas 7. Herbicides G Series o Tabun GA o Sarin GB

7 Goal 1: What is a Chemical Weapon?

8 The general and traditional definition of a chemical weapon is a toxic chemical contained in a delivery system, such as a bomb or shell. The [Chemical Weapons] Convention defines chemical weapons much more generally. The term chemical weapon is applied to any toxic chemical or its precursor that can cause death, injury, temporary incapacitation or sensory irritation through its chemical action. Munitions or other delivery devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves. Source: all text taken verbatim from the OPCW. Available at:

9 What is a Chemical Weapon? For now in class, this definition best captures CW Deliver poisonous substances into a target population, with the purpose of causing injury, incapacity, or death. Delivery occurs by inhalation, ingestion, contact with the skin, or a combination of all three. -- Croddy et al., p. 87 & 88 (emphasis added)

10 Matsumoto in 1994? Tokyo in 1995? Use of sarin (CB) and attempted use of a cyanide CW weapon

11 CW PRODUCTION by a VNSA AUM SHINRIKYŌ (AUM SUPREME TRUTH) Late 1993 Manufactures Sarin and later VX Successfully Tests sarin in Western Australia Matsumoto, June 1994: Use of sarin in City of Matsumoto, Nagano (refrigerator truck with spray nozzle) Killing seven (7) Injuring 144 Tokyo, March 1995: Use of sarin Against the Tokyo Subway Thirteen (13) killed*; 54 seriously injured; ~ 1,000 others injured (primarily psychological) Additionally, a notionally weaponized hydrogen cyanide (AC) device is placed in a parcel fails to engage. * Dr. Amy Smithson, private correspondence.

12 The 7 CW AGENTS What two types did Aum use or attempt to use? 1. BLOOD AGENTS 2. NERVE AGENTS

13 Goal 2: CW Types Identify the seven types of CW

14 The 7 CW AGENTS What are the other five types? BLOOD AGENTS NERVE AGENTS 1. CHOKING AGENTS 2. BLISTER AGENTS 3. INCAPACITATING AGENTS 4. RIOT CONTROL AGENTS 5. HERBICIDES

15 Goal 3: Properties of CW Explore the seven properties that CW are typically broken down into;

16 CW agents are described according to the properties they possess. Let s consider the Aum attack using a typology that answers key questions: 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

17 1. Lethality

18 Lethality How likely will exposure to a chemical weapon lead to death An attacker may choose to administer a sub-lethal dose: goal would be to incapacitate not kill Some chemical agent types are designed to be non-lethal, e.g. riot control agents (RCAs)

19 1: LETHALITY Answers the question: How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY of sarin (GB)? Very high LETHALITY of hydrogen cyanide (AC)? Medium

20 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

21 2. MODE OF ACTION

22 Mode of Action How can a chemical agent enter the body? 1. Inhalation 2. Ingestion 3. Percutaneous (through the skin, eyes, or mucus membranes)

23 MODE OF ACTION What is the mode of action for Sarin? Potentially all three INHALATION INGESTION SKIN / MUCUS MEMBRANE /or EYE CONTACT Ingestion is an uncommon route of exposure for Sarin. Sarin (GB) the Emergency Response Safety and Health Database, Center for Disease Control (DCD). Available at:

24 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

25 3. Speed of Action What is the delay between exposure and effect Instantaneous (seconds to minutes) versus hours and days

26 Speed of Action What was the Speed of Action for Aum s Sarin attack?

27 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

28 4. Toxicity Quantity of a chemical agent that is required to produce a specific, deleterious effect

29 Toxicity continued Toxicity of CWAs Potential to cause injury in biologic systems LD50 single dose causing death in 50% of animals ED50 dose where 50% of exposed population will exhibit signs or symptoms LD50 and ED50 limited use for toxicity of agents inhaled or absorbed across mucous membranes Concentration-time (C-T) used for CWAs Concentration in air x time exposed Represented as milligrams/minute/cubic meter Latency time delay between exposure and clinical signs/symptoms (sulfur mustard and pulmonary have longest nerve agents and cyanides shortest)

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31 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

32 5. Persistency The terms persistent and non-persistent describe the time chemical agents remain in an area. These terms do not classify chemical agents technically.

33 Persistency Length of time a chemical agent remains hazardous after its release Non-persistent agents last from a few minutes to about an hour, i.e., rapid evaporation. Semi-persistent agents last from several hours to about a day Persistent agents can last for several days to a few weeks. These tend to be thick and oily.

34 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

35 6. Availability How did Aum acquire its sarin precursor? Excerpt from Week 2 required reading: Marc Sageman, Terrance Leighton, Lloyd Hough, Hidemi Yuki, Rui Kotani and Zachary M. Hosfor, Aum Shinrikyo Insights Into How Terrorists Develop Biological and Chemical Weapons, Centers for a New American Security, July 2011, p. 52. Available at: uments/publications/cnas_a umshinrikyo_secondedition_ English.pdf

36 1. How likely is the CW agent to lead to death? LETHALITY 2. How will CW agent enter or attack a body? MODE OF ACTION 3. How fast will the CW agent act? SPEED OF ACTION 4. How much of the CW agent is needed to result in the desired effect? TOXICITY 5. How long will the CW agent last on the battlefield? PERSISTENCY 6. How difficult is it to acquire the CW agent(s)? AVAILABILITY OF AGENT AND/OR PRECURSORS 7. How challenging is it to manufacture / weaponize the CW agent? WEAPONIZATION

37 7. Weaponization Under normal atmospheric conditions, is the chemical agent a solid, liquid, or gas? How does this state affect an agent s weaponizability? How corrosive is the agent?

38 WEAPONIZATION: Aerosolization The most efficient method for creating casualties Not too small; not too big for lung deposition Aerosols containing 0.5 to 3 micron sized particles can remain in lungs

39 Aerosolization SMALL MICRONS: Evaporate at short distances

40 Aerosolization

41 Agent Availability / Ease of Fabrication This aspect of CW will emerge over the course of the class

42 Goal 4: Dispersal Considerations Consider the seven most important salient variables with regard to dispersing chemical agents

43 DISPERSAL CONSIDERATIONS AGAIN, MICRON SIZE IS PARAMOUNT 1. Temperatures 2. Wind 3. Altitude 4. Moisture 5. Sunlight 6. Time of Day (e.g., upcoming sunlight/darkness, upcoming temp, etc.)

44 ADVANTAGES TO CW Force an Enemy to Suit Up Chem/bio protection suits are difficult to work in and take time to put on Can be expensive for defender Potentially inexpensive for attacker Increases fog of war Fear

45 Interlude: What are the advantages and disadvantages to CW?

46 ADVANTAGES TO CW Kill or Incapacitate an Enemy

47 Poor Man s Nuclear Weapon State actors may perceive that CW potential can act as a deterrent Chemical weapons cost less to make than nuclear weapons Relatively easy to acquire basic chemical agents to make chemical weapons Easier to hide chemical weapons production than nuclear weapons production

48 Invisible Agents of War or Terrorism Many people greatly fear weapons they can t see or hear Chemical weapons may not require explosives to disperse them Chemical weapons can create certain tactical advantages Because they haven t been used much, people tend to fear them more (potential fear is typically greater than the manifestation of the fear itself)

49 DISADVANTAGES TO CW?

50 Goal 5: Investigate the most important agents for each CW type and for CW writ large.

51 CHEMICAL AGENTS / WEAPONS

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53 CHOKING AGENTS 1. Chlorine (CI) 2. Phosgene (CG) 3. Diphosgene 4. Chloropicrin (PS)

54 Choking Agents (Asphyxiants) Some of the first chemical agents used in modern warfare Inhaled in sufficient quantities, they can cause pulmonary edema suffocating the victim ( dry-land drowning ) Can irritate eyes, nose, and throat

55 Chlorine abundant and relatively cheap Cl 2 gaseous at room temp. Heavier than air effective against trench warfare Pungent, green-yellow gas; can be liquefied under moderate pressure distinctive odor gave warning of its presence Considered obsolete as weapon of war But for VNSAs?

56 Most effective of all the choking agents Phosgene responsible for about 80% of those killed by chemicals during W.W. I Gaseous state

57 Liquid at room temp. Similar to phosgene

58 First used by Russians in Useful commercial chemical pesticide controls Less lethal than chlorine, phosgene, or diphosgene mask breaker Useful for simultaneous attack More persistent than chlorine or phosgene. Remains Liquid Over A Wide Variety of Temps (Think Russian Winters)

59 Description of Chloropicrin by the U.S. Army : PS is a pungent, colorless, oily liquid. It is very volatile and is usable during any season to produce incapacitating or lethal concentrations. PS is a powerful irritant whose vapors cause nose and throat irritation, coughing, and vomiting. As an eye irritant, it produces immediate burning, pain, and tearing. Even in very limited concentrations PS causes the eyelids to close. In high concentrations PS damages the lungs, causing pulmonary edema. It is very soluble in fats and oils, and different organs absorb it. In the liquid form it causes severe burns on the skin that generally result in blisters and lesions. Chloropicrin was used in large quantities by all the warring countries during World War I. Chloropicrin was used alone; more often it was mixed with chlorine, phosgene, diphosgene and tin chloride. It was stockpiled during World War II, generally in concentrations or mixtures to produce tearing. It is more toxic than chlorine but less toxic than phosgene (CG). Chloropicrin decomposes into, chlorine gas and nitrogen oxide near open fires, producing toxic fumes. The protective mask protects against vapors; protective clothing protects against the liquid agent. Source : Potential Military Chemical/ Biological Agents and Compounds, Headquarters Department of the Army. Department of the Navy, Department of the Air Force, Washington, DC, 12 December 1990 PCN , p. 61. Available at:

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61 1. Sulfur Mustard (HD) 2. Lewisite 3. Phosgene oxime

62 2. Blister Agents Serious skin irritation Damage to (primarily upper) respiratory system

63 Blister Agents (Vesicants) Temporary or sometimes permanent blindness

64 VESICANT SPEED OF ACTION

65 Could penetrate clothing, rubber, leather Persistent chemical Multiple routes of attack

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67 Sulfur Mustard: Lethality* * Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. (Washington, D.C., Department of Defense, Office of The Surgeon General, US Army, Borden Institute,2007, 266. Available at:

68 Sulfur Mustard: Sulfur mustard (HD): quite stable due to having very low vapor pressures. Sulfur mustard also has a freezing point, usually, of 14.5 C (although freezing point depressants can be added to make it freeze only at lower temperatures). To increase the shelf life and stability of the ultimate mustard agent, some states have made it a binary munition (see below). Separated, no reactions take place and things are peaceful. Reportedly, if not distilled to a high purity, mustard tends to polymerize when stored for long periods, forming solids that precipitate out of solution and reduce the efficacy of the dissemination. Things just get worse from there. Mauroni, Albert J. Chemical Demilitarization: Public Policy Aspects, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, p. 19, OTA, Technologies Underlying Weapons of Mass Destruction, p. 21.

69 Sulfur Mustard: Speed of Action* * Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. (Washington, D.C., Department of Defense, Office of The Surgeon General, US Army, Borden Institute,2007, 266. Available at: stitute.army.mil/pub lished_volumes/che mwarfare/ch8_pgs pdf

70 Sulfur Mustard: Weaponization* The toxic and physicochemical properties of mustard gas allow it to be used in all types of munitions. Source: The Riegle Report, U.S. Chemical and Biological Warfare-Related Dual Use Exports to Iraq and their Possible Impact on the Health Consequences of the Gulf War, A Report of Chairman Donald W. Riegle, Jr. and Ranking Member Alfonse M., D'Amato of the Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs with Respect to Export Administration, United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d Session, May 25, 1994 Available at:

71 Dew of Death intended for spraying from aircraft Less persistent than mustard Non-flammable

72 Phosgene Oxime ( Nettle Gas ) Can be weaponized into an aerosolized or powdered form Causes painful sores that harden like bee stings Long lasting systemic poison as well as fast acting Simple barriers can prevent exposure

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74 The systemic toxic agents are those compounds which, instead of confining their dominant action to some particular organ or part of the body, usually near the point of impact, have the power to penetrate the epithelial [the covering ] of the lungs without causing local damage. They then pass into the bloodstream, whence they are diffused throughout the whole interior economy of the body and exercise a general systemic poisoning action which finally results in death from paralysis of the central nervous system Augustin M. Prentiss, Chemicals in War: A Treatise on Chemical Warfare (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1937), p. 170.

75 Block use or uptake of oxygen in the blood asphyxiation Highly volatile less useful for chemical warfare But persistency has an advantage can clear the battlefield of agent quickly Cyanide easy to produce could be attractive for terrorists

76 Hydrogen cyanide (HCN) Not very useful on battlefield but used as tool of genocide Barely liquid at room temp Active ingredient in Zyklon-B

77 ( ) cont. Difficult to weaponize (very unstable) Aum created (but did not successfully employ) an HCN device (Tokyo 1995) AQ experimented with it With medical treatment it is non-lethal

78 Cyanide-based Zyklon-B Active ingredient is HCN Used by Germany during World War II to massacre millions of Jews and some non-jews

79 (BUT WON T BE TESTED ON) Cyanogen Chloride (CK) Hydrogen Sulfur ( Sour Gas )

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81 4. Nerve Agents (Toxic Organophosphates) G Series ( G is short for German ) 1. Tabun GA 2. Sarin GB 3. Soman GD V Series ( V is short for venomous ) 4. VX 5. Soviet VX (also called VR )

82 NERVE AGENTS Toxic effects via inhalation and contact Paralyze respiratory musculature Can cause death in a few minutes basically immediate Vary in persistence Chemical composition related to insecticides G-series: GA tabun, GB sarin, GD soman V-series: VE, VG, VM, and VX similar to G- series but more lethal

83 NERVE AGENTS Developed and stockpiled by the Germans in W.W.II Did not see battlefield use until 50 years later: Iran Iraq war.

84 PERSISTENCY OF NERVE AGENTS Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. (Washington, D.C., Department of Defense, Office of The Surgeon General, US Army, Borden Institute,2007, 167. Available at:

85 G-SERIES NERVE AGENTS

86 TABUN-GA Tabun GA Discovered in 1936 by German chemists Less toxic than other G-agents Only four (4) precursors Sodium cyanide Dimethylmine Phosphorus oxychloride Ethyl alcohol

87 Sarin (GB) 5 minute video qriyg&feature=related Used by Aum Shinrikyō in 1994 (Matsumoto) and 1995 (Tokyo)

88 Soman (GD Developed in German in 1944 More lethal than GA or GB Precursors can be difficult to obtain Less stable than GA or GB (e.g., harder to weaponize and deliver Binary soman (also referred to as GD binary and GD2 ). With binary soman (GD binary, GD2): DF [methylphosphonic difluoride] is located in [one] canister, while a mixture of pinacolyl alcohol and an amine is in a second canister. After deployment of the weapon, the two canisters rupture and the chemical mixture produces binary soman. * *Source: Velez-Daubon and Darling, CBRNE - Nerve Agents, Binary - GB2, VX2.

89 V - Agents Similar in structural and toxic properties those of the G-nerve agents but possess even higher toxicity. Only VX and the Soviet version of VX have been weaponized. VX is times more toxic than sarin (GB) when inhaled.

90 Nerve Agents: VX 7 minute video =related 10 to 15 mg can kill an average-sized man High persistence can slime surfaces Ceteris Paribus, your best choice in CW agents

91 5. Incapacitants: Psychoactive Chemicals Should not endanger life Should not cause permanent injury Recovery should not require medical attention Agent should be deliverable, potent, and easy to store

92 REMINDER: How do We Characterize a Chemical 1. Lethality 2. Mode of Action Weapon? 3. Speed of Action 4. Toxicity 5. Persistency 6. Weaponization 7. Availability of agent and/or precursors 8. Dispersal considerations

93 REMINDER: Dispersal Considerations AGAIN, MICRON SIZE IS PARAMOUNT 1. Temperatures 2. Wind 3. Altitude 4. Moisture 5. Sunlight 6. Time of Day (e.g., upcoming sunlight/darkness, upcoming temp, etc.)

94 NOTE: CW AGENTS MAJOR TYPES NOT COVERED SUBSTANTIVELY IN THIS COURSE 1. CHOKING AGENTS 2. BLISTER AGENTS 3. BLOOD AGENTS 4. NERVE AGENTS 5. INCAPACITATING AGENTS 6. RIOT CONTROL AGENTS 7. HERBICIDES

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96 Incapacitants: Psychoactive Chemicals: Harassing Agents Theoretically should not endanger life Theoretically should not cause permanent injury Theoretically recovery should not require medical attention Theoretically agent should be deliverable, potent, and easy to store

97 INCAPACITANTS: TYPES During the 1950s and 1960s several pharmacological substances were explored for use as incapacitants. These included: Depressants Belladonna drugs (scopolamine, BZ) Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD) Opiate Derivatives (fentalyl and its derivatives*) For the purposes of this class, we explore BZ and LSD *Fenatyl (or a related derivative were used by Russian security forces during the Moscow Music Theatre siege of October 23, The agent put into use with the intention of incapacitating the Chechen rebels conducting the siege - killed 129 civilians. The Chechens were organized under the Special Purpose Islamic Regiment (SPIR).

98 Incapacitants: Belladonna Drugs 3-Quinuclidinyl Benzilate (BZ) Belladonna-based (poisonous nightshade plant) Very unpredictable Eventually phased out of the U.S. CW stockpile Acts on the central nervous system Can cause: Unconsciousness Altered States of Situational Awareness * Hallucinations Overall, BZ can disrupt key mental functions like: Memory Problem solving Attention/focus Comprehension * Eric Croddy, Weapons of Mass Destruction Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, 2005), 90.

99 Incapacitants: Hallucinogens Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) Researched for potential to gather intelligence, e.g. CIA s MKULTRA program Highly potent LSD can cause: Unconsciousness Hallucinations Interesting Music Disruption of key mental functions like: Memory Problem solving Attention/focus Comprehension

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101 Riot Control Agents Prohibited by Chemical Weapons Convention when used as a form of warfare Lawful for use by police to control unruly crowds Could be deadly if used in tunnels or other enclosed spaces

102 RCAs Two criteria: Must be able to irritate and disable their human target Must inflict only temporary effects that will not require medical treatment GENERAL RCA CHARACTERISICS: Not Persistent Low Toxicity Rapid Speed Of Action Overall, Easy To Produce

103 RCAs What are the main agents? Mace (CN) (chloroacetophenon) Largely phased by CS CNB - (CN in Benzene and Carbon Tetrachloride) CNC - (CN in Chloroform) CNS - (CN and Chloropicrin in Chloroform) Tear Gas (CS) Used for confidence building and law enforcement Much more intense that CN but less toxic Wears off in 5-10 minutes Can be highly flammable (Waco assault) Pepper Spray (OC) oleoresin capsicum Natural Not as intense as CN or CS Wears off in ~ 30 minutes Adamsite (DM) diphenylaminochlorarsine among other things, a vomiting agent Unlike other RCAs, its speed of action is delayed by several minutes Far more toxic than other RCAs Reportedly a mask breaker * more persistent than other RCAs * Eric Croddy, Weapons of Mass Destruction Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara: ABC Clio, 2005), 3.

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105 Herbicides A. Defoliants These compounds cause trees, shrubs, and other plants to shed their leaves prematurely B. Plant Growth Regulators These compounds regulate (stimulate or inhibit) plant growth C. Desiccants These compounds remove water from plant tissues, causing the plants to dry and shrivel. D. Soil Sterilants These compounds make a soil incapable of supporting higher plant life.

106 1) Define chemical weapons? 2) List the seven types of CW? 3) Understand, compare, and contrast the seven properties that CW are typically broken down into? 4) Understand and explain the seven salient? variables with regard to dispersing chemical agents (and why they are salient)? 5) Demonstrate familiarity with the most important agents for each CW type and for CW writ large? 6) List the three most dangerous CW agents, explaining how you define dangerous and why your selections meet this criterion while others don t?