Series tore word. Acknowledgements

Transcription

1 Series tore word p. xi Preface p. xiii Acknowledgements p. xv Disclaimer p. xvii Introduction p. 1 The instrumental age p. 2 Measurements and the climate record p. 2 Clouds and rainfall p. 3 Standardisation of air temperature measurements p. 4 Upper air measurements p. 5 Manned balloon ascents p. 6 Self-reporting upper air instruments p. 7 Scope and structure p. 8 Principles of Measurement and Instrumentation p. 9 Instruments and measurement systems p. 9 Instrument response characterisation p. 10 Measurement quality p. 12 Instrument response time p. 14 Response to a step-change p. 14 Response to an oscillation p. 15 Deriving the standard error p. 18 Sample mean p. 18 Standard error p. 20 Quoting results p. 20 Calculations combining uncertainties p. 21 Sums and differences p. 21 Products and quotients p. 22 Uncertainties from functions p. 23 Calibration experiments p. 23 Electronics and Analogue Signal Processing p. 27 Voltage measurements p. 28 Signal conditioning p. 28 Operational amplifiers p. 29 Operational amplifier fundamentals p. 30 Signal amplification p. 31 Buffer amplifiers p. 33 Inverting amplifier p. 33 Line driving p. 35 Power supplies p. 36 Voltage signals p. 38 Electrometers p. 38

2 Microvolt amplifier p. 40 Current measurement p. 41 Current to voltage conversion p. 42 Photocurrent amplifier p. 43 Logarithmic measurements p. 44 Calibration currents p. 45 Resistance measurement p. 46 Thermistor resistance measurement p. 46 Resistance bridge methods p. 47 Oscillatory signals p. 50 Oscillators p. 50 Phase-locked loops p. 53 Frequency to voltage conversion p. 54 Physical implementation p. 54 Data Acquisition Systems and Initial Data Analysis p. 57 Data acquisition p. 57 Count data p. 59 Frequency data p. 60 Interval data p. 60 Voltage data p. 61 Sampling p. 63 Time synchronisation p. 66 Custom data logging systems p. 66 Data acquisition cards p. 67 Microcontroller systems p. 67 Automatic Weather Stations p. 68 Management of data files p. 69 Data logger programming p. 69 Data transfer p. 70 Data file considerations p. 71 Preliminary data examination p. 72 In situ calibration p. 72 Time series p. 73 Irregular and intermittent time series p. 75 Further data analysis p. 75 Temperature p. 77 The Celsius temperature scale p. 77 Liquid in glass thermometry p. 78 Fixed interval temperature scales p. 78 Liquid-in-glass thermometers p. 79 Electrical temperature sensors p. 80

3 Thermocouple p. 81 Semiconductor p. 81 Thermistor p. 82 Metal resistance thermometry p. 83 Resistance thermometry considerations p. 86 Thermistor measurement p. 87 Platinum resistance measurement p. 89 Thermometer exposure p. 90 Radiation error of air temperature sensors p. 90 Thermometer radiation screens p. 91 Radiation errors on screen temperatures p. 93 Lag times in screen temperatures p. 95 Screen condition p. 98 Modern developments in screens p. 99 Surface and below-surface temperature measurements p. 99 Surface temperatures p. 99 Soil temperatures p. 100 Ground heat flux density p. 100 Humidity p. 103 Water vapour as a gas p. 103 Physical measures of humidity p. 105 Absolute humidity p. 106 Specific humidity p. 106 Relative humidity p. 107 Dew point and wet bulb temperature p. 107 Hygrometers and their operating principles p. 109 Mechanical p. 109 Chemical p. 111 Electronic p. 111 Spectroscopic p. 112 Radio refractive index p. 113 Dew point meter p. 114 Psychrometer p. 114 Practical psychrometers p. 116 Effect of temperature uncertainties p. 118 Ventilation effects p. 118 Freezing of the wet bulb p. 120 Hygrometer calibration using salt solutions p. 121 Comparison of hygrometry techniques p. 122 Atmospheric Pressure p. 123 Introduction p. 123

4 Barometers p. 123 Liquid barometers p. 124 Mercury barometers p. 125 Hypsometer p. 127 Aneroid barometers p. 127 Precision aneroid barometers p. 128 Flexible diaphragm sensors p. 129 Vibrating cylinder barometer p. 129 Corrections to barometers p. 129 Sea level correction p. 130 Wind speed corrections p. 131 Wind Speed and Direction p. 133 Introduction p. 133 Types of anemometer p. 133 Pressure plate anemometers p. 133 Pressure tube anemometer p. 134 Cup anemometers p. 134 Propeller anemometer p. 136 Hot sensor anemometer p. 137 Sonic anemometer p. 139 Wind direction p. 141 Wind vanes p. 142 Horizontal wind components p. 144 Multi-component research anemometers p. 146 Anemometer exposure p. 146 Anemometer deficiencies p. 146 Wind speed from kite tether tension p. 148 Radiation p. 151 Introduction p. 151 Solar geometry p. 154 Orbital variations p. 154 Diurnal variation p. 155 Solar time corrections p. 155 Day length calculation p. 156 Irradiance calculation p. 157 Shortwave radiation instruments p. 158 Thermopile pyranometer p. 158 Pyranometer theory p. 159 Silicon pyranometers p. 162 Pyrheliometers p. 162 Diffuse solar radiation measurement p. 164

5 Occulting disk method p. 164 Shade ring method p. 165 Reflected shortwave radiation p. 168 Fluctuations in measured radiation p. 169 Reference solar radiation instruments p. 171 Cavity radiometer p. 172 Secondary pyrheliometers p. 172 Longwave instruments p. 173 Pyrradiomeier theory p. 173 Pyrradiomeier calibration p. 174 Pyrgeometer measurements p. 175 Commercial pyrradiomeiers p. 175 Radiation thermometry p. 177 Sunshine duration p. 178 Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder p. 180 Electronic sensors p. 181 Clouds, Precipitation and Atmospheric Electricity p. 183 Introduction p. 183 Visual range p. 183 Point visibility meters p. 184 Transmissometers p. 185 Present zueather sensors p. 185 Cloud base measurements p. 186 Rain gauges p. 187 Tilting siphon p. 188 Tipping bucket p. 188 Disdrometers p. 191 Atmospheric electricity p. 191 Potential Gradient instrumentation p. 191 Variability in the Potential Gradient p. 192 Lightning detection p. 193 Upper Air Instruments p. 195 Radiosondes p. 195 Sounding balloons p. 196 Radiosonde technology p. 197 Pressure sensor p. 199 Temperature and humidity sensors p. 200 Wind measurements from position information p. 201 Data telemetry p. 202 Radio transmitter p. 203 Uncertainties in radiosonde measurements p. 204

6 Response time p. 204 Radiation errors p. 204 Wet-bulbing p. 206 Location error p. 207 Telemetry errors p. 208 Specialist radiosondes p. 209 Cloud electrification p. 209 Ozone p. 209 Radioactivity and cosmic rays p. 210 Radiation p. 210 Turbulence p. 211 Supercooled liquid water p. 211 Atmospheric aerosol p. 212 Aircraft measurements p. 212 Air temperature p. 212 Wind p. 212 Pressure p. 213 Altitude p. 213 Small robotic aircraft p. 213 Further Methods for Environmental Data Analysis p. 215 Physical models p. 215 Surface energy balance p. 215 Turbulent quantities and eddy covariance p. 217 Soil temperature model p. 218 A Vertical wind profile p. 220 Solar radiation models p. 222 Langley's solar radiation method p. 222 Surface solar radiation: Holland's model p. 224 Statistical models p. 225 Histograms and distributions p. 226 Statistical tests p. 226 Wind gusts p. 229 Ensemble averaging p. 229 Solar radiation variation p. 230 Pressure tides p. 231 Carnegie curve p. 231 Spectral methods p. 233 Power spectra p. 233 Micrometeorological power spectra p. 235 Conclusion p. 237 Appendix A Writing a Brief Instrumentation Paper p. 239

7 Scope of an instrument paper p. 239 Structure of an instrument paper p. 239 Paper title p. 239 Abstract p. 240 Keywords p. 240 Motivation p. 240 Description p. 240 Comparison p. 241 Figures p. 241 Summary p. 242 Acknowledgements p. 242 Submission and revisions p. 242 Anemometer Coordinate Rotations p. 243 References p. 247 Index p. 253 Table of Contents provided by Blackwell's Book Services and R.R. Bowker. Used with permission.