RADAR REMOTE SENSING OF PLANETARY SURFACES
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1 RADAR REMOTE SENSING OF PLANETARY SURFACES BRUCE A. CAMPBELL Smithsonian Institution CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
2 Contents Acknowledgments page ix 1 Introduction Radar remote sensing Historical context Rationale 10 Outline of the book 11 2 Radar scattering terminology 13 Outline Basic terminology Constitutive parameters Electromagnetic waves in arbitrary media Energy loss in a medium Polarization" Coherence and power The Stokes vector ' Polarization terminology Reflection and refraction at a plane boundary Emission from a surface The radar equation Polarization ratios The scattering matrix The Mueller and Stokes matrices Polarization synthesis 40 Summary 41 3 Roughness and dielectric properties 44 Outline Definition of roughness Basic statistics of a rough surface 45
3 vi Contents 3.3 Correlation The Fourier transform The power spectrum, aliasing, and filtering The importance of horizontal scale Introduction to fractal concepts Properties of self-affine continuous surfaces Properties of surface and volume populations Methods of topographic data collection Dielectric properties of natural materials Mixing of materials with different properties Measuring the dielectric constant 79 Summary 80 4 Radar data collection and analysis 82 Outline Antennas Pulse compression techniques Real-aperture radar (RAR) Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) Planetary ranging and continuous-wave observations Planetary delay-doppler mapping Effect of the ionosphere Speckle Radar scatterometers and altimeters Interferometry Geometric effects in radar mapping Image geometric corrections Data calibration \ Image speckle and texture analysis Structural and stereo mapping 127 Summary Theoretical treatment of scattering by rough surfaces 132 Outline Vector and scalar fields Coherent and incoherent reflections Scattering at a rough two-dimensional interface Roughness criteria Scattering by gently undulating surfaces Scattering by slightly rough surfaces Integral equation methods for rough surface scattering Scalar model for coherent scattering by fractal rough surfaces 152
4 Contents 5.9 Scattering by collections of discrete objects Numerical methods The general nature of surface scattering 162 Summary Radar scattering from continuous rough surfaces 167 Outline Topographic and dielectric data for rough surfaces Radar data for rough surfaces Surface roughness General backscatter properties of rough surfaces Relationships between echo components Very smooth surfaces and the small-perturbation model Empirical models for the HH, VV, LR, and RL echoes Empirical models for the HV, VH, LL, and RR echoes Wavelength dependence in scattering from fractal surfaces Blocky surfaces Aeolian roughness Scattering at high incidence angles 200 Summary and implications for radar remote sensing Radar scattering from collections of objects or layered terrain 203 Outline Statistical descriptions of rock-strewn surfaces Example of a rock-strewn field site Radar scattering from a rock-strewn surface Radar scattering from sand dunes Radar scattering from mantled rough surfaces Examples of mantled surfaces Radar scattering from volume populations 231 Summary and implications for remote sensing Planetary radar studies: the Moon, Mercury, and asteroids 235 Outline General properties of regoliths Radar data for the Moon Radar data for Mercury Scattering models for a planetary regolith The lunar mare regolith Lunar pyroclastic deposits Radar properties of lunar and mercurian impact craters Ice at the poles of Mercury and the Moon Radar observations of asteroids 262 vii
5 viii Contents 8.10 Radar sounding 264 Summary and future directions Planetary radar studies: Venus and Mars 270 Outline The surface of Venus Radar data for Venus Surface properties of the Venus plains Surface properties of venusian volcanoes Impact craters on Venus The nature of the Venus highlands The surface of Mars Radar data for Mars Radar scattering from heavily cratered terrain and plains on Mars Surface properties of martian outflow and ejecta deposits Surface properties of martian volcanoes The martian polar caps 310 Summary and future directions 311 List of symbols 312 References 316 Index 329 Color plate section facing page 150
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Planetary Surface Processes Nathan Bridges Applied Physics Laboratory (and former JPLer and ongoing coworker with many at JPL and Caltech) rippled sand in Gale Crater MSL landing ellipse HiRISE image ESP_023957_1755