Contents Introduction to spectroscopy, spectroscopes and spectrographs The analysis of sunlight: the earliest pioneers

Transcription

1 Preface to the second edition Preface to the first edition, 1986 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements for the second edition Acknowledgements for the first edition (1986) xi xiii xv xv xv 1 Introduction to spectroscopy, spectroscopes and spectrographs Introduction Basic concepts in spectroscopy Terminology Wavelength and colour Continuous, emission and absorption spectra Resolution and resolving power of spectroscopes The development of the spectrograph and spectroscope design Prism instruments in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Early objective prism instruments Early grating spectroscopes and spectrographs The development of coudé spectrographs The development of the échelle spectrograph The CCD as a detector for astronomical spectroscopy 11 2 The analysis of sunlight: the earliest pioneers Isaac Newton and the composition of sunlight Invisible rays in the solar spectrum: Thomas Young and the measurement of wavelength William Wollaston and the discovery of the solar line spectrum Joseph Fraunhofer and the solar line spectrum Planetary and stellar spectra observed by Fraunhofer 19 3 The foundations of spectral analysis: from Fraunhofer to Kirchhoff The beginnings of spectral analysis: the work of Sir John Herschel Sir David Brewster and spectral analysis Fox Talbot and the spectra of flames Further progress in studying the solar infrared by J. Herschel, Fizeau and Foucault Edmond Becquerel and solar spectrum photography The photographic solar spectrum of J.W. Draper Sir George Stokes and the fluorescent ultraviolet solar spectrum The relationship between heat, light and chemical rays The origin of the Fraunhofer lines A key observation by Foucault as a step towards understanding the Fraunhofer spectrum Kirchhoff announces the presence of sodium in the Sun 27 v in this web service

2 vi 3.12 The emission and absorption of radiation: the theoretical work of Balfour Stewart and Kirchhoff Further laboratory work in the analysis of flame, arc and spark spectra Bunsen and Kirchhoff: chemical analysis of the solar spectrum Reactions to the work of Kirchhoff and Bunsen 29 4 Early pioneers in stellar spectroscopy Stellar spectroscopy before Stellar spectroscopy: a new beginning Lewis Rutherfurd Early spectroscopy at Greenwich Angelo Secchi and spectral classification William Huggins and stellar composition Wolf and Rayet and their emission-line stars Huggins later work: comets and the Doppler effect Henry Draper, Wm Huggins and spectrum photography Hermann Carl Vogel The discovery of helium Vogel s second classification Vogel and photographic radial-velocity determinations Norman Lockyer and the meteoritic hypothesis New southern emission-line stars: Herschel, Ellery, Pechüle, Copeland The spectra of red stars: d Arrest, Dunér, Espin Nicholas von Konkoly, Eugen von Gothard and the first supernova spectrum Spectrum photography in the 1890s: McClean, Scheiner, Sidgreaves 59 5 Spectral classification at Harvard Edward Pickering at Harvard College Observatory Mrs Draper and the Henry Draper Memorial Williamina Fleming and the Draper Memorial Catalogue Establishment of the Boyden Station at Arequipa, Peru The Maury classification Antonia Maury s collateral divisions based on line width Ionized helium lines and the Pickering series Annie Cannon and the Harvard classification of Annie Cannon s classifications of The 1910 meeting of the International Solar Union and the spectral classification questionnaire Williamina Fleming s work on stars with peculiar spectra Emission-line stars catalogued by Annie Cannon The Henry Draper Catalogue: programme initiated by Pickering and Cannon Publication of the HD Catalogue The Henry Draper Extension Statistical analysis of the HD data: Shapley and galactic structure 83 6 The Doppler effect Early history of the Doppler effect Fizeau and Mach and the concept of line displacements First attempts to observe Doppler shifts by Secchi and Huggins Visual Doppler shift programmes of Maunder and Christie (Greenwich) and Seabroke (Rugby) The Doppler effect and solar rotation Visual radial-velocity measurements by Keeler at Lick Photographic radial-velocity work by Vogel and Scheiner at Potsdam 90 in this web service

3 vii 6.8 Radial-velocity work of Belopolsky at Pulkova Radial-velocity programmes in the United States, France and Britain in the 1890s William W. Campbell The D.O. Mills expedition to Chile Campbell, Wright and Moore at Lick Campbell s analysis of solar motion New radial-velocity programmes established early in the twentieth century The Mt Wilson radial-velocity programme High-velocity stars and the discovery of galactic rotation John Plaskett at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Victoria Edwin Frost at Yerkes Observatory Cepheid variables and the pulsation theory The International Astronomical Union and radial-velocity programmes Standard wavelengths and standard stars Radial-velocity catalogues Radial-velocity programmes in the 1930s: David Dunlap and McDonald observatories Radial-velocity work in the Soviet Union and in the southern hemisphere, The Wilson General Catalogue Changing trends in radial-velocity research from the 1950s Empirical confirmation of Doppler and gravitational shifts Objective prism radial velocities Photoelectric radial velocities New radial-velocity catalogues of the late twentieth century Stellar rotation Rotation in binary stars Rotation in single stars and the correlation with spectral type The discovery of extrasolar planets The interpretation of stellar spectra and the birth of astrophysics Some early theories of stellar evolution Hertzsprung s analysis of the Maury c-type stars Monck s analysis of proper motion and luminosity Russell s work on luminosity and spectral type, and his relationship to Hertzsprung Adams and Kohlschütter s work on luminosity effects in stellar spectra New developments in atomic physics and their influence on astrophysics The first stellar temperatures measured by Wilsing and Scheiner Photographically determined stellar energy distributions Further visual spectrophotometry at Potsdam Saha and the theory of ionization Saha s analysis of the sequence of Harvard spectral types Fowler and Milne and the method of line strength maxima Ionization theory and luminosity effects in stellar spectra Cecilia Payne and the empirical confirmation of ionization theory The Russell Adams Moore analysis of the solar spectrum Russell and Adams on stellar composition Unsöld and Russell on the composition of the Sun The first curve of growth The curve of growth applied to interstellar and stellar lines The gradient effect and stellar atmospheric turbulence 146 in this web service

4 viii 7.21 Subsequent work in solar spectral analysis and the Utrecht Solar Atlas Kenneth Wright and the solar curve of growth Spectral classification: From the Henry Draper Catalogue to the MK system and beyond The first International Astronomical Union meeting in Rome, May The classification of O stars Spectral classification of nebulae The spectroscopy of normal B stars Line strengths, spectral types and the singlet-triplet anomaly The Stark effect, luminosity criteria and spectroscopic parallaxes Spectral classification programmes in the 1920s and 1930s Bertil Lindblad and the spectrophotometry of late-type stars Barbier, Chalonge and the Balmer jump To the MKK classification and beyond The origins of the MKK two-dimensional classification The MKK Atlas of Stellar Spectra Some commentaries on the MKK system Spectral classification at Yerkes after the MKK The MK system The classification of the carbon stars Introduction and summary of principal band systems Classification of carbon stars after the HD Catalogue Other proposed carbon star classifications Carbon isotope ratios and the J-type stars Carbon star catalogues The classification and spectra of S stars S stars, A new understanding of the S spectral type, from Vanadium oxide and metallic hydrides in the M-type stars Spectral classification The discovery of brown dwarfs and the introduction of the L and T spectral types The discovery of brown dwarfs The lithium test for brown dwarfs New spectral classes L and T Spectroscopy of peculiar stars Introduction to peculiar stars Carlyle Beals and the Wolf Rayet classification Spectral classification of novae Nova spectral classification by Williams Emission line B stars: the Be stars Herbig Ae and Be stars The peculiar A-type stars: an astrophysical enigma Discovery of peculiar A stars and early progress up to W.W. Morgan and Ap stars, Horace Babcock and magnetic fields in the Ap stars The oblique rotator model for magnetic stars Spectral classification of Ap stars The manganese stars and other early-type peculiar stars Chemically peculiar stars 210 in this web service

5 ix 9.6 The λ Boötis stars The metallic-line stars (Am) Early history to 1960 of Am stars Clarification of some of the metallic-line problems Am stars from White dwarf spectra Discovery of three white dwarfs The Einstein redshift New white dwarfs in the 1930s Luyten s white dwarf discoveries and spectral classification scheme Classification and analysis of white dwarf spectra, The 1983 Sion spectral classification The hydrogen-deficient stars The T Tauri variable stars The barium stars The discovery of CH stars Symbiotic stars The spectra of supernovae A note on the paucity of bright supernovae S Andromedae and Z Centauri Supernova spectroscopy to The classification of supernova spectra Further refinements in supernova spectral classification The supernova SN1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud Quantitative analysis of stellar spectra Introduction Stellar colour temperatures from Early model stellar atmospheres Rupert Wildt and the negative hydrogen ion Early model atmospheres in the 1940s after Wildt s discovery Empirical and theoretical solar models and the line-blanketing problem Successive refinements to stellar model atmospheres from Convection and line blanketing in early model atmospheres The great debate: LTE versus non-lte models The analysis of stellar spectra: four basic prerequisites The effect of adopted temperature on derived abundances Equivalent widths of lines by microdensitometry Line identification in standard stars The need for absolute oscillator strengths Blackwell s precise Oxford oscillator strengths, and the great solar iron abundance controversy Four pioneers in stellar abundance analysis: Unsöld, Greenstein, Aller, Wright Unsöld and τ Sco: the methodof Grobanalyse Greenstein and the differential analysis of F stars Aller s abundance analyses Kenneth Wright and the analysis of four solar-type stars Concluding remarks on abundance analyses in the 1940s Abundance analyses from Overview : who analysed which stars when, where and how? 281 in this web service

6 x Abundance analyses of stars of the halo population G dwarfs analysed by Wallerstein and others Lithium in the Sun and other stars HD and the first spectral analysis of an extragalactic star Stellar element abundances in the late twentieth century New determinations of iron-to-hydrogen ratios [Fe/H] Uranium and thorium lines and their use in cosmochronology The great Population III treasure hunt The age metallicity relationship in the galactic disk Some miscellaneous topics in stellar spectroscopy: individual stars of note, stellar chromospheres, interstellar lines and ultraviolet spectroscopy from space Introduction Some individual stars of note The spectrum of P Cygni η Carinae He 3 in 3 CenA Przybylski s star, HD The amazing Doppler shifts of SS The remarkable spectra of the post-agb stars, FG Sagittae and Sakurai s object Emission lines at H and K and the Wilson Bappu effect Interstellar absorption lines and the dawn of ultraviolet spectroscopy from space The discovery of interstellar absorption lines New interstellar lines and bands and later research The dawn of ultraviolet spectroscopy from space Ultraviolet stellar spectroscopy from satellites The Orbiting Astronomical Observatories Ultraviolet spectroscopy with Europe s TD-1 satellite The International Ultraviolet Explorer The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph on Hubble 323 Figure sources and acknowledgements 329 Appendix A: List of solar lines designated by letters by Fraunhofer and others 337 Appendix B: Vogel s first spectral classification scheme of Index of names 341 Index of star names 349 Index of spectral lines 353 Index of subjects 355 in this web service