Contents. Associated Editors and Contributors...XXIII

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1 Contents Associated Editors and Contributors...XXIII 1 Fundamentals of Piezoelectricity Introduction The Piezoelectric Effect Mathematical Formulation of the Piezoelectric Effect. A First Approach Piezoelectric Contribution to Elastic Constants Piezoelectric Contribution to Dielectric Constants The Electric Displacement and the Internal Stress Basic Model of Electric Impedance for a Piezoelectric Material Subjected to a Variable Electric Field Natural Vibrating Frequencies Natural Vibrating Frequencies Neglecting Losses Natural Vibrating Frequencies with Losses Forced Vibrations with Losses. Resonant Frequencies Introduction to the Microgravimetric Sensor...25 Appendix 1.A...28 The Butterworth Van-Dyke Model for a Piezoelectric Resonator A.1 Rigorous Obtaining of the Electrical Admittance of a Piezoelectric Resonator. Application to AT Cut Quartz A.2 Expression for the Quality Factor as a Function of Equivalent Electrical Parameters...35 References Overview of Acoustic-Wave Microsensors Introduction General Concepts Sensor Types Quartz Crystal Thickness Shear Mode Sensors Thin-Film Thickness-Mode Sensors Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors Shear-Horizontal Acoustic Plate Mode Sensors Surface Transverse Wave Sensors Love Wave Sensors Flexural Plate Wave Sensors...48

2 XII Contents Other Excitation Principles of BAW Sensors Micromachined Resonators Operating Modes Sensitivity...57 References Models for Resonant Sensors Introduction The Resonance Phenomenon Concepts of Piezoelectric Resonator Modeling The Equivalent Circuit of a Quartz Crystal Resonator Six Important Conclusions The Sauerbrey Equation Kanazawa s Equation Resonant Frequencies Motional Resistance and Q Factor Gravimetric and Non-Gravimetric Regime Kinetic Analysis...75 Appendix 3.A A.1 Introduction A.2 The Coated Piezoelectric Quartz Crystal. Analytical Solution A.3 The Transmission Line Model...82 The piezoelectric quartz crystal...83 The Acoustic Load A.4 Special Cases...88 The Modified Butterworth-Van Dyke Circuit...88 The Acoustic Load Concept...89 Single Film...90 The Sauerbrey Equation...92 The Kanazawa Equation...93 Martin s Equation...93 Small phase shift approximation...94 References Models for Piezoelectric Transducers Used in Broadband Ultrasonic Applications Introduction The Electromechanical Impedance Matrix Equivalent Circuits Broadband Piezoelectric Transducers as Two-Port Networks

3 Contents XIII 4.5 Transfer Functions and Time Responses Acoustic Impedance Matching Electrical matching and tuning References Interface Electronic Systems for AT-Cut QCM Sensors: A comprehensive review Introduction A Suitable Model for Including a QCM Sensor as Additional Component in an Electronic Circuit Critical Parameters for Characterizing the QCM Sensor Systems for Measuring Sensor Parameters and their Limitations Impedance or Network Analysis Adapted Impedance Spectrum Analyzers Decay and Impulse Excitation Methods Oscillators Basics of LC Oscillators Oscillating Conditions Parallel Mode Crystal Oscillator Series Mode Crystal Oscillator Problem Associated with the MSRF Determination Problem Associated with the Motional Resistance Determination Oscillators for QCM Sensors. Overview Interface Systems for QCM Sensors Based on Lock-in Techniques Phase-Locked Loop Techniques with Parallel Capacitance Compensation Lock-in Techniques at Maximum Conductance Frequency Interface Circuits for Fast QCM Applications Conclusions Appendix 5.A Critical Frequencies of a Resonator Modeled as a BVD Circuit A.1 Equations of Admittance and Impedance A.2 Critical Frequencies Series and parallel resonant frequencies Zero-Phase frequencies Frequencies for Minimum and Maximum Admittance A.3 The Admittance Diagram References...180

4 XIV Contents 6 Interface Electronic Systems for Broadband Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Applications: Analysis of Responses by means of Linear Approaches Introduction General Interface Schemes for an Efficient Coupling of Broadband Piezoelectric Transducers Electronic Circuits used for the Generation of High Voltage Driving Pulses and Signal Reception in Broadband Piezoelectric Applications Some Classical Circuits to Drive Ultrasonic Transducers Electronic System Developed for the Efficient Pulsed Driving of High Frequency Transducers Electronic Circuits in Broadband Signal Reception Time Analysis by Means of Linear Approaches of Electrical Responses in HV Pulsed Driving of Piezoelectric Transducers Temporal Behaviour of the Driving Pulse under Assumption Temporal Behaviour of the Driving Pulse under Assumption Behaviour of the Driving Pulse under Assumption 3: The Inductive Tuning Case References Viscoelastic Properties of Macromolecules Introduction Molecular Background of Viscoelasticity of Polymers Shear Modulus, Shear Compliance and Viscosity The Temperature-Frequency Equivalence Conclusions Shear Parameter Determination References Fundamentals of Electrochemistry Introduction What is an Electrode Reaction? Electrode Potentials The Rates of Electrode Reactions How to Investigate Electrode Reactions Experimentally...229

5 Contents XV 8.6 Electrochemical Techniques and Combination with Non-Electrochemical Techniques Applications Bibliography Glossary of Symbols References Chemical Sensors Introduction Electrochemical Sensors Potentiometric Sensors Amperometric Sensors Conductimetric Sensors Optical Sensors Acoustic Chemical Sensors Calorimetric Sensors Magnetic Sensors References Biosensors: Natural Systems and Machines Introduction General Principle of Cell Signaling Biosensors Molecular Transistor Analogy and Difference of Biological System and Piezoelectric Device References Modified Piezoelectric Surfaces Introduction Metallic Deposition Vacuum Methods Evaporation (Metals) Sputtering (Metals or Insulating Materials) Electrochemical Method Technique Based on Glued Solid Foil (Nickel, Iron, Stainless Steel ) Chemical Modifications (onto the metallic electrode) Organic Film Preparation Polymer Electrogeneration (Conducting Polymers: Polypyrrole, Polyaniline )...275

6 XVI Contents Monolayer assemblies SAM Techniques (Thiol Molecule) Langmuir-Blodgett Method Self-Assembled Polyelectrolyte and Protein Films Biochemical Modifications Direct Immobilisation of Biomolecules (Adsorption, Covalent Bonding) Entrapping of Biomolecules (Electrogenerated Polymers: Enzyme, Antibodies, Antigens ) DNA Immobilisation References Fundamentals of Piezoelectric Immunosensors Introduction Hapten synthesis Monoclonal antibody production Immobilization of immunoreagents Characterization of the piezoelectric immunosensor References Combination of Quartz Crystal Microbalance with other Techniques Introduction Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) ac-electrogravimetry Compatibility between QCM and Electrochemical measurements QCM in Combination with Optical Techniques QCM in Combination with Scanning Probe Techniques QCM in Combination with Other Techniques Appendix 13.A: Determination of the Layer Thickness by EQCM Appendix 13.B: Fundamentals on Ellipsometry References QCM Data Analysis and Interpretation Introduction Description of the Parameter Extraction Procedure: Physical Model and Experimental Data Physical Model Experimental Parameters for Sensor Characterization...334

7 Contents XVII 14.3 Interpretation of Simple Cases One Sauerbrey-Like Behavior Layer One Semi-Infinite Newtonian Liquid One Semi-Infinite Viscoelastic Medium One Thin Rigid Layer Contacting a Semi-Infinite Medium Summary Limits of the Simple Cases Limits of the Sauerbrey Regime Limits of the Small Surface Load Impedance Condition and of the BVD Approximation Interpretation of the General Case Description of the Problem of Data Analysis and Interpretation in the General Case Restricting the Solutions by Increasing the Knowledge about the Physical Model Restricting the Solutions by Measuring the Thickness by an Alternative Technique Restricting the Solutions by Assuming the Knowledge of Properties Different from the Thickness Restricting the Solutions by a Controlled Change of the Properties of the Second Medium Restricting the Solutions by Increasing the Knowledge about the Admittance Response Restricting the Solutions by Measuring the Admittance Response of the Sensor to Different Harmonics Restricting the solutions by Measuring the Admittance Response of the Sensor in the Range of Frequencies around Resonance Additional Considerations. Calibration Other Effects. The N-layer Model Four-Layer Model for the Description of the Roughness Effect Case Studies Case Study I: Piezoelectric Inmunosensor for the Pesticide Carbaril Model Experimental Methodology Calibration of the piezoelectric transducer Results and Discussion...370

8 XVIII Contents Case Study II: Microrheological Study of the Aqueous Sol-Gel Process in the Silica-Metasilicate System Model Experimental Methodology Results and Discussion Case Study III: Viscoelastic Characterization of Electrochemically prepared Conducting Polymer Films Model Experimental Methodology Results and Discussion Appendix 14.A: Obtaining of the Characteristic Parameters of the Roughness Model Developed by Arnau et al. in the Gravimetric Regime References Sonoelectrochemistry Introduction Basic Consequences of Ultrasound Experimental Arrangements Applications Sonoelectroanalysis Sonoelectrosynthesis Ultrasound and Bioelectrochemistry Corrosion, Electrodeposition and Electroless Deposition Nanostructured Materials Waste Treatment and Digestion Multi-frequency Insonation Final Remarks References Ultrasonic Systems for Non-Destructive Testing Using Piezoelectric Transducers: Electrical Responses and Main Schemes Generalities about Ultrasonic NDT Some requirements for the ultrasonic responses in NDT applications Through-Transmission and Pulse-Echo Piezoelectric Configurations in NDT Ultrasonic Transceivers...415

9 Contents XIX 16.3 Analysis in the Frequency and Time Domains of Ultrasonic Transceivers in Non-Destructive Testing Processes Multi-Channel Schemes in Ultrasonic NDT Applications for High Resolution and Fast Operation Parallel Multi-Channel Control of Pulse-Echo Transceivers for Beam Focusing and Scanning Purposes Electronic Sequential Scanning of Ultrasonic Beams for Fast Operation in NDT A Mux-Dmux of High-voltage Pulses with Low On-Impedance References Ultrasonic Techniques for Medical Imaging and Tissue Characterization Introduction Ultrasound Imaging Modes Basic ultrasonic properties of biological materials A-Mode B-Mode Other Types of B-mode Images Tissue harmonic imaging and contrast agents D ultrasound imaging Doppler Imaging Ultrasound Computed Tomography (US-CT) Ultrasound Elastography Ultrasound Biomicroscopy (UBM) Computer-Aided Diagnosis in Ultrasound Images Quantitative Ultrasound (QUS) Speed of Sound (SOS) Acoustic attenuation coefficient Backscatter coefficient Periodicity Analysis: the Mean Scatterer Spacing (MSS) Acknowledgements References Ultrasonic Hyperthermia Introduction Ultrasonic Fields Ultrasound Field Measurement...470

10 XX Contents 18.3 Ultrasonic Generation Piezoelectric Material The Therapy Transducer Additional Quality Indicators Beam Non Uniformity Ratio Effective Radiating Area (ERA) Wave Propagation in Tissue Propagation Velocity Acoustic Impedance Attenuation Heating Process Ultrasonic Hyperthermia Hyperthermia Ultrasound Systems Superficial Heating systems Planar Transducer Systems Mechanically Scanned Fields Deep Heating Systems Mechanical Focusing Electrical focusing Characterization of Hyperthermia Ultrasound Systems Ultrasound Phantoms Ultrasound Phantom-Property Measurements Focusing Ultrasonic Transducers Spherically Curved Transducers Ultrasonic Lenses Electrical Focusing Transducer Arrays Intracavitary and Interstitial Transducers Trends References Appendix A: Fundamentals of Electrostatics A.1 Principles on Electrostatics A.2 The Electric Field A.3 The Electrostatic Potential A.4 Fundamental Equations of Electrostatics A.5 The Electric Field in Matter. Polarization and Electric Displacement...501

11 Contents XXI Appendix B: Physical Properties of Crystals B.1 Introduction B.2 Elastic Properties B.2.1 Stresses and Strains B.2.2 Elastic Constants. Generalized Hooke s Law B.3 Dielectric Properties B.4 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion B.5 Piezoelectric Properties Index...525

Piezoelectric Transducers and Applications

Piezoelectric Transducers and Applications Antonio Arnau Vives (Ed.) Piezoelectric Transducers and Applications Second Edition 123 Editor Prof. Dr. Antonio Arnau Vives Universidad Politécnica de Valencia