Foundations of MEMS. Chang Liu. McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science Northwestern University. International Edition Contributions by

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1 Foundations of MEMS Second Edition Chang Liu McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science Northwestern University International Edition Contributions by Vaishali B. Mungurwadi B. V. Bhoomaraddi College of Engineering & Technology Anil V. Nandi B. V. Bhoomaraddi College of Engineering & Technology Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River Boston Columbus San Francisco New York Indianapolis London Toronto Sydney Singapore Tokyo Montreal Dubai Madrid Hong Kong Mexico City Munich Paris Amsterdam Cape Town

2 Contents PREFACE 10 A NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS 12 ABOUT THE AUTHOR 14 Chapter 1 Introduction Preview The History of MEMS Development From the Beginning to From 1990 to to Present Future Trends The Intrinsic Characteristics of MEMS Miniaturization Microelectronics Integration Parallel Fabrication with Precision Devices: Sensors and Actuators Energy Domains and Transducers Sensors Considerations Sensor Noise and Design Complexity Actuators Considerations 35 Summary 36 Problems 37 References 41 Chapter 2 First-Pass Introduction to Microfabrication Preview Overview of Microfabrication Essential Overview of Frequently Used Microfabrication Processes Photolithography Thin Film Deposition Thermal Oxidation of Silicon Wet Etching Silicon Anisotropic Etching Plasma Etching and Reactive Ion Etching Doping Wafer Dicing Wafer Bonding The Microelectronics Fabrication Process Flow Silicon-Based MEMS Processes Packaging and Integration Integration Options Encapsulation 71

3 Contents 2.6 New Materials and Fabrication Processes Process Selection and Design Points of Consideration for Deposition Processes Points of Consideration for Etching Processes Ideal Rules for Building a Process Flow Rules for Building a Robust Process 75 Summary 77 Problems 77 References 79 Chapter 3 Review of Essential Electrical and Mechanical Concepts Preview Conductivity of Semiconductors Semiconductor Materials Calculation of Charge Carrier Concentration Conductivity and Resistivity Crystal Planes and Orientations Stress and Strain Internal Force Analysis: Newton's Laws of Motion Definitions of Stress and Strain General Scalar Relation Between Tensile Stress and Strain Mechanical Properties of Silicon and Related Thin Films General Stress Strain Relations Flexural Beam Bending Analysis Under Simple Loading Conditions Types of Beams Longitudinal Strain Under Pure Bending Deflection of Beams Finding the Spring Constants Torsional Deflections Intrinsic Stress Dynamic System, Resonant Frequency, and Quality Factor Dynamic System and Governing Equation Response Under Sinusoidal Resonant Input Damping and Quality Factor Resonant Frequency and Bandwidth Active Tuning of Spring Constant and Resonant Frequency A List of Suggested Courses and Books 130 Summary 131 Problems 132 References 136 Chapter 4 Electrostatic Sensing and Actuation 4.0 Preview Introduction to Electrostatic Sensors and Actuators Parallel-Plate Capacitor Capacitance of Parallel Plates Equilibrium Position of Electrostatic Actuator under Bias Pull-in Effect of Parallel-Plate Actuators

4 Contents Applications of Parallel-Plate Capacitors Inertia Sensor Pressure Sensor Flow Sensor Tactile Sensor Parallel-Plate Actuators Interdigitated Finger Capacitors Applications of Comb-Drive Devices Inertia Sensors Actuators 180 Summary 182 Problems 182 References 186 Chapters Thermal Sensing and Actuation Preview Introduction Thermal Sensors Thermal Actuators Fundamentals of Thermal Transfer Sensors and Actuators Based on Thermal Expansion Thermal Bimorph Principle Tliermal Actuators with a Single Material Thermal Couples Thermal Resistors Applications Inertia Sensors Flow Sensors Infrared Sensors Other Sensors 231 Summary 236 Problems 236 References 241 Chapter 6 Piezoresistive Sensors Preview Origin and Expression of Piezoresistivity Piezoresistive Sensor Materials Metal Strain Gauges Single Crystal Silicon Polycrystalline Silicon Stress Analysis of Mechanical Elements Stress in Flexural Cantilevers Stress and Deformation in Membrane Applications of Piezoresistive Sensors Inertial Sensors Pressure Sensors Tactile Sensor Flow Sensor 271

5 Contents Summary 276 Problems 277 References 281 Chapter 7 Piezoelectric Sensing and Actuation Preview Introduction Background Mathematical Description of Piezoelectric Effects Cantilever Piezoelectric Actuator Model Properties of Piezoelectric Materials Quartz PZT PVDF ZnO Other Materials Applications Inertia Sensors Acoustic Sensors Tactile Sensors Flow Sensors Surface Elastic Waves 309 Summary 311 Problems 311 References 315 Chapter 8 Magnetic Actuation 8.0 Preview Essential Concepts and Principles Magnetization and Nomenclatures Selected Principles of Micro Magnetic Actuators 8.2 Fabrication of Micro Magnetic Components Deposition of Magnetic Materials Design and Fabrication of Magnetic Coil Case Studies of MEMS Magnetic Actuators 331 Summary 342 Problems 342 References Chapter 9 Summary of Sensing and Actuation Methods 9.0 Preview Comparison of Major Sensing and Actuation Methods 9.2 Other Sensing and Actuation Methods Tunneling Sensing Optical Sensing Field Effect Transistors Radio Frequency Resonance Sensing 359 Summary 360 Problems 361 References

6 Contents 7 Chapter 10 Bulk Micromachining and Silicon Anisotropic Etching Preview Introduction Anisotropic Wet Etching Introduction Rules of Anisotropic Etching Simplest Case Rules of Anisotropic Etching Complex Structures Forming Protrusions Interaction of Etching Profiles from Isolated Patterns Summary of Design Methodology Chemicals for Wet Anisotropic Etching Dry Etching and Deep Reactive Ion Etching Isotropic Wet Etching Gas Phase Etchants Native Oxide Special Wafers and Techniques 393 Summary 393 Problems 394 References 400 Chapter 11 Surface Micromachining Preview Basic Surface Micromachining Processes Sacrificial Etching Process Micro Motor Fabrication Process A First Pass Micro Motor Fabrication Process A Second Pass Micro Motor Fabrication Process Third Pass Structural and Sacrificial Materials Material Selection Criteria for a Two-layer Process Thin Films by Low Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition Other Surface Micromachining Materials and Processes Acceleration of Sacrificial Etch Stiction and Anti-stiction Methods 416 Summary 417 Problems 418 References 420 Chapter 12 Process Synthesis: Putting It All Together Preview Process for Suspension Beams Process for Membranes Process for Cantilevers SPM Technologies Case Motivation General Fabrication Methods for Tips Cantilevers with Integrated Tips Cantilevers with Integrated Sensors SPM Probes with Actuators Practical Factors Affecting Yield of MEMS 457 Summary 458 Problems 458 References 462

7 8 Contents Chapter 13 Polymer MEMS Preview Introduction Polymers in MEMS Polyimide SU Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) PDMS PMMA Parylene Fluorocarbon Other Polymers Representative Applications Acceleration Sensors Pressure Sensors Flow Sensors Tactile Sensors 483 Summary 486 Problems 486 References 487 Chapter 14 Micro Fluidics Applications Preview Motivation for Microfluidics Essential Biology Concepts Basic Fluid Mechanics Concepts The Reynolds Number and Viscosity Methods for Fluid Movement in Channels Pressure Driven Flow Electrokinetic Flow Electrophoresis and Dielectrophoresis Design and Fabrication of Selective Components Channels Valves 515 Summary 518 Problems 518 References 520 Chapter 15 Case Studies of Selected MEMS Products Preview Case Studies: Blood Pressure (BP) Sensor Background and History Device Design Considerations Commercial Case: NovaSensor BP Sensor Case Studies: Microphone Background and History Design Considerations Commercial Case: Knowles Microphone 532

8 Contents Case Studies: Acceleration Sensors Background and History Design Considerations Commercial Case: Analog Devices and MEMSIC Case Studies: Gyros Background and History The Coriolis Force MEMS Gyro Design Single Axis Gyro Dynamics Commercial Case: InvenSense Gyro Summary of Top Concerns for MEMS Product Development Performance and Accuracy Repeatability and Reliability Managing the Cost of MEMS Products Market Uncertainties, Investment, and Competition 547 Summary 548 Problems 548 References 552 Appendix 1 Characteristics of Selected MEMS Materials 553 Appendix 2 Frequently Used Formula for Beams, Cantilevers, and Plates 556 Appendix 3 Basic Tools for Dealing with a Mechanical Second-order Dynamic System 558 Appendix 4 Most Commonly Encountered Materials 562 Appendix 5 Most Commonly Encountered Material Removal Process Steps 563 Appendix 6 A List of General Compatibility between General Materials and Processes 564 Appendix 7 Comparison of Commercial Inertial Sensors 567 Answers to Selected Problems 569 Index 571

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