KATY, TX ROGER SIGLER TREE TOAD DRIVE VAN WINGERDEN P.O. BOX 902 LAKE ISABELLA, CA 93240

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1 SUBMARINE FLOW AND SLIDE DEPOSITS IN THE KINGSTON PEAK FORMATION, KINGSTON RANGE, MOJAVE DESERT, CALIFORNIA: EVIDENCE FOR CATASTROPHIC INITIATION OF NOAH'S FLOOD ROGER SIGLER TREE TOAD DRIVE VAN WINGERDEN P.O. BOX 902 LAKE ISABELLA, CA KATY, TX KEYWORDS: Breccia, Megabreccia, Megaclast, Olistlith, Debrite, Oliststrme, Mjave Desert, Uncnfrmity, Earthquake, Faulting, Submarine Landslide, Debris Flw, Diamictite, Sturzstrm, Precambrian, Prterzic, Pre-Fld/Fld Bundary, Plate Tectnics, Califrnia ABSTRACT The case fr a glacial rigin fr the upper Prterzic Kingstn Peak Frmatin is weak. Stratigraphic crrelatins and rck descriptins suggest a marine depsitinal envirnment fr the entire frmatin. The Lwer Sandstne Unit f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin is best interpreted as an Antediluvian inner shelf depsit. It is underlain by ther widespread shelf depsits, the Beck Spring Dlmite fllwed by the Crystal Spring Frmatin which rests n granitic gneiss. Thick accumulatins f puddingstnes (called diamictite by many), interpreted as sandy and limy debris flws, verlap the shelf depsits. These, in turn, are verlain by rhythmically laid breccias and megabreccias interpreted as clast-supprted debris flws. The debris was derived mainly frm the underlying Beck Spring Dlmite and Crystal Spring Frmatin. At the start f the Fld large-scale catastrphic plate tectnics assciated with the subductin zne t the west caused the pre-fld sea flr t cllapse. Sandy and limy debris flws mving at the rate f m/s were instantly generated at the nset f massive lcal faulting assciated with the event. A displacement f 950 m r mre in sme areas alng the giant fault scarp cnverted the shelf int a 60 slpe envirnment. This activity spawned seismic sea waves. Sheet flws f fluidized rck masses fell ver the cataract and flwed acrss the basin at m/s. In the deeper areas large scale slumping ccurred as huge megaclasts r slabs hundreds f meters lng slid dwnslpe within a successin f high cncentratin turbidites. These catastrphic carse clastic depsits f the middle and upper Kingstn Peak Frmatin at the Kingstn Range directly verly and crsscut int the Crystal Spring Frmatin and crystalline basement at nearby muntain ranges. This uncnfrmity f extreme magnitude may crrelate with the Great Uncnfrmity and mark the base f the Sauk megasequence. After the Kingstn Peak flw and slide depsits, widespread marine sediments, beginning with the Nnday Dlmite, began t be depsited as the ceans inundated the cntinents. INTRODUCTION The upper Prterzic "Pahrump Grup" is divided (frm bttm t tp) int the Crystal Spring Frmatin, Beck Spring Dlmite, and Kingstn Peak Frmatin ; the Crystal Spring rests n a crystalline basement f granitic gneiss and the Nnday Dlmite verlies the Kingstn Peak Frmatin [5,16,55]. The Kingstn Peak ranges in thickness frm zer t mre than 3 km ver a distance f less than 4 km [46]. It cntains rhythmites (a successin f repetitius sedimentary beds) with predminant graded beds [43] ; turbidites, cnglmerate, breccia and megabreccia [47]; gigantic clasts up t abut 1.5 km in length [23,42,46]; bulders assciated with deep water turbidites and diamictite layers [55]; and limestne [18]. "Diamictite" is a nnsrted r prly srted, nncalcareus, terrigenus sedimentary rck with a wide range f particle sizes [4]. Breccias are called mega breccia when sme f the clasts reach 1.0 meter in length r greater. Blcks and slabs ccur within sheets f mnmictic (ne rck type) mega breccia ttaling apprximately 1.5 km in thickness at sme lcatins [46,47]. Over the years several general studies have been made f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin and crrelative strata n a reginal and even glbal scale. In western Nrth America the Kingstn Peak Frmatin 487

2 apparently crrelates with ther frmatins frm Mexic nrthward thrugh the western United States and Canada up t at least Alaska [41], and may crrelate with the Sixtymile Frmatin f the Grand Canyn Chuar Grup [1]. Crrelative strata in Utah, Idah [8,42], and Washingtn state are called the "diamictite and vlcanic sequence" [42, p.2]. It is the nly knwn unit "in the Precambrian and Palezic sequence that cntains diamictite, and in mst f thse same areas it is the nly unit that cntains abundant vlcanic rcks" [42, p.4]. Upper Prterzic "diamictites" have als been lcated frm at least 100 ther frmatins lcated in at least 15 cuntries including ther parts f the United States [14]. If the Kingstn Peak Frmatin des crrelate with the ther frmatins n such an extensive scale then a similar depsitinal envirnment is implied. Many unifrmitarian gelgists [e.g. 23,24,45,50] hypthesize that the Kingstn Peak Frmatin was depsited as a result f large scale glacial activity ver millins f years even thugh detailed studies have nt been made [50,55]. Sme call the diamictite by the genetic name "tillite" [e.g. 50,51], the lithified equivalent f glacial till [4]. Creatinists [e.g.1,2,28] recgnize the implicatins f these depsits and [1,2] believe that detailed field studies in this area culd distinguish which rcks existed prir t Nah's Fld frm thse frmed at the start f the Deluge. The purpse f this paper is t present the data gathered in the field which evidences sme f the initial submarine landslide Fld depsits in this area; the prbable seismic activity assciated with the depsits; and a prpsed rate f sedimentatin. PAST RESEARCH AND SPECULATIONS OF THE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT Suggestins fr the depsitinal envirnment f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin at varius lcatins include fanglmerates r alluvial fans [16]; glacial prcesses [23,24,25,45,50], and submarine landslides r debris flws [1,33,50,53]; r a cmbinatin f these depsitinal envirnments as climatic changes ccurred ver an assumed millin years [14]. Hewitt [16] believed the middle carse cnglmerate prtin f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin at the Kingstn Range, cmprised largely f quartzite and dlmite clasts, represents a fanglmerate which stratigraphically lies between upper and lwer Kingstn Peak tillites. Althugh n ne has systematically critiqued the fanglmerate interpretatin, mst mdern authrs [1,5,18,23,24,25,33,40,41,43,45,46,48,49,53,56] accept and dcument evidences fr rapid depsitin in a submarine envirnment. Sedimentary structures f the frmatin, cmmnly bserved in turbidites, include flame structures, scur and fill features, lad casts, flute casts, cnvlute laminatin and slump structures [45]. Furthermre, thin sandstne beds, within Kingstn Peak limestnes at the Panamint Range (80 km west f the Kingstn Range), are similar t many ther strm beds r tempestites frm the gelgic recrd... "they generally reflect ffshre sediment transprt by strm-surge currents and waves" [50, p. 822], and thicker sandstne beds shw a lw undulating laminatin like the hurricane depsit knwn as hummcky crss-stratificatin (HCS). The general "shelf cntext" f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin in the Black Muntains (50 km nrthwest f the Kingstn Range), tgether with the lcal evidence fr current reversals and HCS, "suggests that a strm rigin is mst likely, with depsitin taking place clse, t belw strm-wave base, mid t uter shelf' [50]. Thick lenses f pillw basalt als ccur within the diamictites in the Panamint Range [25]. The Kingstn Peak Frmatin is "f dubtful glacigenic rigin" [14, p. 283]. The general appearance f spradic and islated pebbles within an abundance f sandy and limy matrix is the nly reasn given why the upper and lwer depsits were called "tillites" [16]. Hwever, using the wrd "tillite" as a descriptr term unjustly leads t the cnclusin that pebbly beds in the gelgic recrd were depsited as an "accumulatin f glacial till" [33]. Mrever, matrix supprted islated bulders within abundant matrix are als frmed by subaqueus debris flws [28]. Other specific evidences usually cited fr a glacial envirnment are striated and faceted stnes [25,33,43,45]; drpstnes, islated sand and gravel clts, striated pavement [43]; and hmgeneity, thickness and lateral extent f diamictite units [25]. In the Kingstn Range, features indicative f a glacial rigin have nt been fund [53]. Furthermre, "nne" f the pebbles and cbbles bserved are "distinctly faceted r shwed striae" [16]. But even if sme are, striatins and facets can als be frmed by streams r faulting [4,33]. Miller [25] lcated islated bulders called drpstnes, which she believes were drpped by icebergs. Indeed, thers [24,45,50,55] als speculate that many f the depsits in the Kingstn Peak Frmatin are "glacimarine", the view that the sediments were derived by glaciers and redepsited in a marine envirnment by ice rafting, debris flws, and turbidity currents during ice advances [25,45]. This claim als hypthesizes that during retreat, glacial meltwaters supplied the sediments fr the rapid frmatin f rhythmites [40], and the widespread laminated limestne recrds glacial retreat and marine transgressin [24]. Hwever, even ice age advcates admit, "glacial assciatin f the rcks is indicated r suggested but nt prven" [23, p. 747]. In fact, the glacial rigin has several prblems; fr instance, the presence f dlmite, limestne, red beds and irn frmatin depsits fund in the Black 488

3 Muntains typically frm in warm water "Ii",e mdern carbnates" [50, p. 818]. Besides the prblem f warrn water, recent glacial depsits are thin, cntain glacitectnic features, and iceberg drag marks ccur in mdern shelf sediments up t 500 m deep [28]. Hwever, pre-pleistcene depsits are thick and apparently lack these distinct features [28]. Frm a glbal perspective, cncern has been expressed ver the pstulated upper Prterzic glaciatin because this "ice age" wuld have invlved an unfunded scenari f "planetary refrigeratin" including ice caps "in the trpics" [33, p. 674]. Finally, the "extent" f the diamictites [25] is an entire magnitude less than Pleistcene glacial depsits [28,33]. even if the Kingstn Peak Frmatin des crrelate with ther frmatins. The relatinship f the marine depsitinal envirnment f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin t large scale tectnic activity has been underscred [33]. Vertical mvements n fault bunded blcks is evidenced by marked nrthward thinning f the Kingstn Peak and the abundance f debris within it frm the underlying frmatins [55]. The area t the nrth, called the Npah upland, caused debris frm the Beck Spring Dlmite and Crystal Spring Frmatin t be shed and redepsited suthward in a rapidly-subsiding west-nrthwest-trending basin accmpanied by faulting alng its nrth-nrtheast margin [47,55]. Apparently, the debris that dumped ver the fault caused an uncnfrmity within the frmatin uniting it with the verlying Nnday Dlmite, Jhnnie Frmatin, Stirling Quartzite, and Wd Canyn Frmatin [1,25,30]. At the nrthern Avawatz Muntains (30 km suthwest f the Kingstn Range) and suthern Panamint Range the Kingstn Peak directly verlies and crsscuts int the underlying Crystal Spring Frrnatin and crystalline basement rcks [25]. Abrupt thickness changes ccur in lwer Kingstn Peak units at the Panamint Range which rest n variable substrate and lcally verlap faults, indicating tectnism prir t depsitin [25]. Thin layers f pale, fine-grained depsits may be altered vlcanic ash [55], and pillw basalt demnstrates synchrnus subaqueus vlcanism [25]. Basement induced faulting ceased during depsitin f the Nnday Dlmite [19]. On a large scale varius plate tectnic ideas have arisen t explain the tectnism. Sme [10,34] believe that upper Prterzic rifting ccurred during breakup f the Laurentian supercntinent caused by a huge thermal perturbatin in the mantle [7]. The evidence cited fr rifting is inferred because large crustal blcks frm several margins f western Nrth America may pssibly lie within the cmpsite cntinent f Eurasia [10), and similar sediments verlap the Siberian and Nrth American margins [34). Others (15) suspect that the western United States was a stable platfrm where vertical tectnics dminated withut the ccurrence f plate rifting r cllisin. Anther pssibility is the pre-fld cntinental margin (nw called Califrnia) was defrrned early in the Fld in respnse t the rapid subductin f ceanic crust [1, pa3]. As a result, great tensin in the upper cntinental crust caused large listric faults with synchrnus tectnic denudatin and cllapse f the submarine sedimentary cver [1]. PROCEDURE Seven clumnar sectins f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin were measured using a Bruntn cmpass, 1.5 m lng Jacb staff, and a glbal psitining system (GPS) during eight ne-week lng field trips at the Kingstn Range. Detailed descriptins f the lithlgy, texture, sedimentary structures, and clast types, sizes, abundance, and degree f rundness were recrded. The matrix f sme units was tested with 5% HCI and samples f suspected dlmite beds were gathered and analyzed. The layers f the frrnatin dip frm abut 45 t 85 twards the nrth-nrtheast with strikes ranging predminantly frm 105 t Sectins were measured frm the bttm (suth-suthwest) f the frmatin, perpendicular t the strike, t the tp (nrth-nrtheast). STRATIGRAPHY The Kingstn Peak Frmatin can be divided int fur basic lithlgic units [16]. Frm bttm t tp they are infrmally named: 1) Lwer Sandstne Unit; 2) Puddingstne Unit; 3) Megabreccia Unit; and 4) Upper Cnglmeratic Sandstne Unit. The sectins are illustrated in Figure 1 and were named accrding t the mst significant man-made r natural feature f each area. The debris f the Kingstn Peak is cmprised f clasts frm the underlying Crystal Spring Frmatin, Beck Spring Dlmite, and t a lesser degree, the granitic gneiss [16,55]. Crss-bedded sandstnes (Old Huse) and imbricated cbbles (Hrse Thief Springs) f the Megabreccia Unit indicate a sutheast paleflw (albeit 2-dimensinal). Three dimensinal views f stacked cbbles in the surce area indicate a flw due suth twards Megaclast Ridge. An verturned syncline f Beck Spring Dlmite with a strike f 110 near Crystal Spring Mine and flds at the Megaclast Ridge imply a paleslpe l > the suth-suthwest. Bradly speaking, depsitin and transprt ccurs dwn a paleslpe in a general nrth-t-suth directin. Therefre, when bserving Figure 1, nte that the paleslpe and paleflw is mainly "twards the viewer" with sme flw twards the deeper area at Megaclast Ridge. 489

4 Hr I znt I Distance I n Meters 2,000 ~, 000 Ii, 000 8, , , 000 OJ +- E 01 C L Cl.. en -'" u OJ m OJ > -"l (j) L OJ + OJ L OJ u en u + L OJ > ~ Dlmite I Sandstne rn S legend I I ty Sandstne II Mudstne ~ Megaclst ~ MegbreCCI a ~ Breccl U Rhyth"tes ~ Cng I mert I c Smdstne NW' Nrth"est S[ 'Sutheast Vert I c I [xggert ln' BX Vertical Scale In Meters abve BS KNINGSTON P[AK formation KP- I V' Upper Cnglmerat IC Sandstne Un i t KP-III'MegctreCCI Un i t KP-II'Puddl ngstne Un i t KP-I'L"er Sandstne Unit < (1) """] --t () en n (1) ::r (1) -+ (1) """] (j) cr < (1) OJ (1) n '" en -0 """] :::J CD 3 OH'O ld Huse CSM'Crystl Spring Mine ND' NOONOAl OOLOMIlE SRM'S,lver Rule Mine RH'Rund Hills BS' B[CK SPRING OOLOMIf[ fs'flylng Saucer HTS' Hrse Thief SprlC<Js MR' Megc lst Ridge 2,000 ~, 000 1i,000 8,000 10, , 000 Hr I znt I Distance I n Meters Figure 1. Crrelatin f fur lithlgic units between seven measured stratigraphic sectins f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin, nrthern Kingstn Range f sutheastern Califrnia, The Significant cmbined thickness increase suthward (tward the right, and tward the viewer in the diagram) in units KP-II t KP-IV demnstrates that the Kingstn Peak Frmatin was synchrnus with extrardinary tectnic prcesses that caused abrupt deepening f a shallw-marine shelf int a deep cean basin. Lwer Sandstne Unit (KP-I) is interpreted t be the shelf-delta f the latest pre-fld perid. As the cntinental shelf began t cllapse int the deep cean basin, enrmus debris flw and catastrphic slide depsits ccurred (KP-II t KP-IV). Puddingstne Unit (KP-II), matrix-supprted sandy and limy debris flws, is interpreted t be the first Fld depsits in the area. Megabreccia Unit (Kp III), clast-supprted debris flws and giant slide blcks up t 1 km lng, signal the massive tectnic cllapse and basin deepening as dwnward faulting f the marine shelf accelerated. Upper Cnglmeratic Sandstne Unit (KP-IV), bedded debris flws and turbidites, is assciated with basin filling during diminishing tectnics as rapid invasin f marine waters depsited the verlying Nnday Dlmite. 490

5 verall abundance. Individual puddingstne layers f this unit exceed SO m in thickness at three f the lcatins. The thickness f the entire Puddingstne Unit ranges frm abut SO m at Runded Hills t abut 1S0 m at Crystal Spring Mine. Differences in thicknesses f individual puddingstne layers als ccur which culd be attributed t the hummcky surface knwn t frm frm debris flws [29]. The Puddingstne Unit is prly srted, prly graded, lacks distinct internal layering, exhibits rare crude stratificatin, and resembles pured cncrete; all these features are described frm debris flws [29). Others als believe these buldery depsits can be explained by transprtatin in dense submarine debris flws [53,55). caused by tectnic relief rather than glaciers [53). Therefre, this unit is interpreted as a "debrite", a depsit that resulted frm a debris flw [29]. "Catastrphic submarine debris flws may carry (r push) enrmus slabs weighing up t abut 2300 millin kg" immersed weight [29, p. 27]. Debris flws are a type f slurry flw [31] that resemble wet cncrete; exhibit chesive and frictinal strength ; and mve as a result f defrmatin in a basal zne f high shear stress [29]. Laminar flw generally prevails abve the basal zne [29]. Dispersed clasts are supprted within the matrix by frictinal resistance t settling, when matrix strength exceeds dwnward frce f the clasts, buyancy, elevated pre pressures f the slurry, and dispersive pressure [29). The matrix density f the debris flw is estimated at 16S2.0 kg/m 3 and was calculated assuming a mix f 50% wet sand f density kg/m 3 [12) and 50% cement slurry with a density f kg/m 3 [12]. Predminant clast types bserved in the field are quartzite, dlmite and chert. The density f the chert and quartzite clasts are estimated at 2650 kg/m 3 and dlmite clasts at 2850 kg/m3 [12]. The strength (k) f the debris flw is calculated using a cmpetence equatin develped by Hamptn [29] ; thus, max = 8.8k. g(pclast- pmatnx) (1) where: Dmax = largest clast size k = strength 9 = gravitatinal acceleratin p = density f clast r matrix Nw, the Bingham plastic rhelgy mdel fr a debris flw states that the critical shear stress fr mvement ('tcrit) equals the strength f the debris (k); thus, 'tcrit = k [29]. Althugh sme large debris flws may be turbulent, Hamptn [in 29], wh used reasnable values fr flw strengths and densities demnstrated that even large fast debris flws wuld prbably be laminar and nt turbulent; equatin (2), called the Hamptn Number [29], shws this relatinship. (2) where: p = flw density u = mean flw velcity 'tcrit = critical shear stress needed fr mvement It fllws that if the strength is equal t the critical shear stress fr mvement t ccur, then the minimum mean flw velcities are easily calculated using equatin (3): U= 1000-rcrit p (3) The largest clast size (Dmax) as field measured, gravitatinal acceleratin f 9.8 m/s2, matrix density (p matrix) f kg/m 3 and apprpriate clast density (pclast) as indicated earlier was used in equatin (1) t calculate strength (Le. critical shear stress); the results are indicated in TABLE 1. These strengths (k) r critical shear stresses ('tcrit) alng with a cnservative "flw density" (P) f 1800 kg/m 3 (t accunt fr the 5-10% entrainment f clasts within the debris matrix) were used in equatin (3) t calculate the minimum mean flw velcities als shwn in TABLE 1. The calculated velcities are similar t previusly reprted rates f 20 m/s [29] and even up t 35 m/s [31] fr debris flws. On cntinental slpes, earthquakes, tide r strm surges are required t initiate mvement f debris flws; "a slpe is a necessary prerequisite" [36]. 491

6 The fur generalized units as a whle can be crrelated fairly well in this manner. A first bservatin f the stratigraphy is the marked swelling f the Megabreccia Unit at the Old Huse and Silver Rule Mine sectins. The thickness f this unit at Crystal Spring Mine was prbably abut the same as Silver Rule Mine befre it was faulted ut. The mst marked change ccurs t the sutheast at the Megaclast Ridge sectin which is lcated abut 4 km frm the Hrse Thief Springs sectin. Here the Megabreccia Unit thickens int thick sequences f interbedded sandstnes and shales with enrmus megaclasts. The general trend f the Upper Cnglmeratic Sandstne Unit is als a thickening trend twards the sutheast. The Puddingstne Unit is thickest in the vicinity f the Crystal Spring Mine and Silver Rule Mine sectins. In this area individual puddingstne layers are interlayered with breccias which may imply a mre chatic envirnment. In fact, they ccur in the vicinity f a huge clast (abut 1 km lng) infrmally called Mt. Megaclast, which was depsited in the Lwer Sandstne Unit. INTERPRETATION OF THE SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENT The Underlying Frmatins Sme [e.g. 18,42] believe the Crystal Spring Frmatin (CS) and Beck Spring Dlmite (BS) were depsited n a "shelf' underlain by a platfrm f Prterzic granitic gneiss. This assumes that the granitic gneiss is cntinental crust [e.g. 54]. These depsits are remarkably unifrm and the abundance f CS and BS debris in the Kingstn Peak Frmatin testify that these depsits were at ne time mre widespread [42]. Furthermre, the angularity f the BS clasts in the Kingstn Peak Frmatin (KP) suggest that the BS was already lithified prir t catastrphic redepsitin. Therefre, the BS is tentatively evaluated, by the authrs f this reprt, t be depsited n an Antediluvian shelf, which may have included shallw subtidal t intertidal envirnments [49] including ffshre shals, lagns, and brad tidal flats with pnds, channels and levees [21]. Lwer Sandstne Unit (KP) Overall, catastrphic activity des nt seem evident in this lwest unit. It is a rather unifrm depsit, ranging in thickness frm m that cnsists f mstly massive, very fine-medium grained sandstnes with bedded siltstnes. The siltstnes ccur mre frequently up sectin. Slump features and pinch and swell structures were seen at the Silver Rule Mine sectin. Sand, the mst cmmn shelf sediment [38], ccurs in water depths < m [38,54], but is especially abundant frm 0-60 m depths n inner shelves [38]. Pinch and swell beds are cnsidered wave-dminated structures that ccur between lw tide and the 100 m depth f mdern cntinental shelves [52]. The thickness f the depsit [52] and lateral extent [9] may imply a high-cnstructive delta system n the shelf. The prdelta slpe, which ccurs seaward beynd the delta frnt, is dminated by silts and clays; whereas, the frnt cnsists mstly f sand [9]. Other than turbidites [45], slump structures can als frm n the prdelta slpe r in the delta frnt [9]. Alternatively, the slump features may have been caused by disruptin during depsitin f the verlying units. Sme [5] believe that lithlgic data, sedimentary structures and fssil assemblages suggest that the Pahrump Grup frm the middle CS thrugh this lwer Kingstn Peak unit was depsited in an intratidal t supratidal envirnment, but they d nt distinguish which frmatins were depsited belw wave base. Hwever, they d suggest that the verlying units f diamictite, vlcanic ash, and mnmictic mega breccia suggest that the middle and upper members f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin were depsited in a higher energy sedimentary and tectnic envirnment [5]; we agree with this assessment. Therefre, this lwest unit f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin seems best interpreted as an accumulatin n a brad shelf alng with the Beck Spring Dlmite and Crystal Spring Frmatin. Puddingstne Unit (KP) Puddingstne is a massive, prly srted matrix-supprted cnglmerate cnsisting f extic pebbles, cbbles, and bulders f varius rigins (i.e. surces). The name was derived because the clasts greatly cntrast the enclsing matrix and reminded ne f plum pudding [4]. The Kingstn Peak puddingstnes are the same depsits many call "tillites" r "diamictites" [e.g. 33,50]. Because "diamictite" is a nncalcareus depsit [4,33], and "tillite" is a nn-descriptive genetic term [33], the authrs f this reprt pted fr the term "puddingstne". The fine grained sandy puddingstnes f this unit at the Kingstn Range are ften calcareus and typically interlayered with sandstnes, mudstnes, pebbly breccia, and cbbly breccia; and are mst ften interlayered with discntinuus dlmite twards the tp f the unit r in sme places caps the unit. This dlmite unit may crrelate with the Surdugh Limestne Member f the Panamint Range which is shwn capping the "diamictite" f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin in that area [25]. The clasts shw n preferred rientatin and range frm 2-20% in 492

7 TABLE 1 Minimum Mean Flw Velcities f Kingstn Peak Debris Flws Clast Type Sectin Rundness Critical Shear Mean Flw Dmax Stress r Strength Velcity kg/(m)(sz) m mls Hrse Thief Dlmite (Beck 0.5 Subrunded 1, Springs Spring) Old Huse Black Chert 0.4 Angular Flying Saucer Silver Rule Mine Black Chert Quartzite Subangular Subrunded Warm water is a favrable cnditin fr the precipitatin f calcium carbnate. The matrix f the carbnate layer (r layers) at r near the tp f the puddingstnes was verified by seventeen element analysis. The results indicate an average lss n ignitin f 40.5%. CalMg ratis fall in the range f either a sedimentary dlmite r calcitic dlmite [4). Samples frm the Crystal Spring sectin shwed the highest amunt f terrestrial input (Le. SiOz' AIP3' and Ti0 2); whereas, the sample frm Megaclast Ridge measured the lwest. The general trend is lesser terrestrial input twards the sutheast. Hwever, many dlmite layers are heavily brecciated and cntain clasts f Beck Spring Dlmite including black chert and are interpreted as limy debris flws (e.g. Crystal Spring & Silver Rule Mine). Individual debris flws are knwn t depsit separate tngues f material that have quite different textual characteristics (29). While fllwing the single (and nly) layer at Silver Rule Mine the dlmite disappeared int puddingstne. Other dlmite layers in the Kingstn Peak Frmatin are nt as brecciated and cntain thick bands f black chert (e.g. Flying Saucer). Abut 500 m west frm Flying Saucer the lwest dlmite layer was fllwed where it tapers ut int puddingstnes and becmes mre brecciated. Just adjacent t this taper are chunks (>1m in length) f brecciated dlmite that appear as if they brke-ff frm the dlmite layer and flated away within the puddingstnes. The first 60 cm f the underlying puddingstne in this area appears smashed r cntrted. These discntinuus "layers" may actually be liststrmes (slide accumulatin) f uppermst Beck Spring Dlmite that slid and flwed int place cncurrently with the puddingstnes as they detached frm the surce regin t the nrth. Brecciatin culd be caused by sliding, by brken fragments transprted tgether, and by dewatering prcesses induced by earthquakes assciated with sedimentary mvements n faults [51). Megabreccia Unit (KP) Plymictic (mre than ne rck type) and mnmictic breccias and megabreccias ccur at the Kingstn Range. They are clast supprted layers with mstly subangular cbbles and bulders. At first glance, ne culd easily call many breccias "mnmictic"; hwever, upn clse examinatin mst "mnmictic" breccias are in reality "nearly mnmictic". Plymictic and nearly mnmictic breccias are cmprised f clasts f dlmite, quartzite (r pssibly granphyre), and lesser amunts f diabase, chert, and ther clasts. "Nearly mnmictic" breccias cntain abut 95% gray dlmite and nly abut 5% quartzite and ther clasts. Mst plymictic breccias rhythmically alternate with thin sandstne beds (e.g. Flying Saucer and Old Huse sectins). They range in thickness frm m including sandstne beds abut cm thick. Many f the breccia beds are entrained with the same type f carse brwn sandstne that cmprises the alternating sandstne beds. Crss-bedding in sme sandstnes indicates a sutherly flw. The clasts f sme sandy breccias becme separated by abut 5-25% matrix. The clasts f Beck Spring Dlmite within this unit are mstly subangular t angular while the clasts f suppsed quartzite and diabase are usually subrunded t runded. The largest clasts (Dmax) within the megabreccias typically measured frm 1.5 m t 4.0 m lng. This des nt include the huge megaclasts. One blck f Beck Spring Dlmite sits n tp f the dlmite layer at the Runded Hills sectin and measures 5 m thick by 12 m in strike length. This blck is stratigraphically lwer than the 40 m thick by 380 m lng blck bserved stratigraphically higher in the frmatin measured near Silver Rule Mine. The 380 m megaclast extends thrugh the verlying depsits and a rather large prtin f it appears in depsitinal cntact with the verlying Nnday Dlmite. Plymictic megabreccia cmpsed f abut 60% Beck Spring Dlmite clasts and 40% quartzite clasts surrunds the 380 m lng blck. An interesting feature f the enrmus dlmite blcks is their relatin t the surrunding mega breccia. Mst f debris in the breccias clser t the blcks becmes mre mnmictic with dlmite clasts similar t the blck itself. This indicates that the blcks were breaking apart arund the edges and generating much f the breccia debris while sliding. Similar prcesses ccurred in the Split Muntain sturzstrm when rck debris was crushed and trn away frm a larger "cre stne" [17, p. 159]. There are an abundance f runded t subrunded clasts f quartzite that ccur in clse prximity t and even 493

8 within jigsaw puzzle mnmictic megabreccias surrunding the giant clasts. T accunt fr this, it seems reasnable that the harder quartzite clasts, that prbably riginated frm a mre distant surce [16], were presumably already in turbulent transprt during the breakup and sliding f the dlmite blcks. The surce area, abut 4 km t the nrth f Megaclast Ridge was examined fr tw days. The pint where the Nnday Dlmite directly verlies the Crystal Spring Frmatin was seen. Frm this pint suthward the thickness f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin increases abruptly and the Nnday appears t verly the Kingstn Peak as an angular uncnfrmity. The Beck Spring Dlmite, even thse sitting n the Crystal Spring Frmatin, appear as giant slide blcks. The nrthern tps f the slide blcks are in cntact with the verlying Nnday Dlmite. Mving suthward alng the Nnday/Kingstn Peak cntact the fllwing sequence was bserved: brecciated Beck Spring megaclast, sandy breccia, brecciated Beck Spring megaclast, and sandy breccia. 14 The sandy breccia is very prly srted and 12 cnsists f abut 75% prbable debris frm the Crystal Spring Frmatin and 25% frm the Beck Spring Dlmite. Bulders f dlmite, 2-3 m lng, ccur near the cntact with the Nnday. Bulders f runded quartzite 50 cm diameter are quite numerus thrughut. 4 Depsits similar t the Lwer Sandstne Unit and Puddingstne Unit were nt seen at the Bulder Depsited 2 surce area. 18, , ;---,---, , ,---.-~ At the Old Huse sectin each clast supprted plymictic rhythmite is inverse-t-nrmally graded with the largest clasts depsited in Bulder Diameter (em) rughly the middle f each breccia bed. This suggests a very high energy envirnment nearer t the surce [29]. Disrganized beds Figure 2. Velcities Needed t Erde & Depsit are clsest t the surce fllwed dwncurrent Cbbles & Bulders. by inverse-t-nrmally graded, graded, and finally graded-stratified beds [29]. The best example f graded t perhaps graded-stratified beds ccurs at Hrse Thief Springs. Thrughut the range, gd utcrps f cbble-bulder breccias have a fluid-like mrphlgy and appear as suspensin depsits that suddenly drpped frm suspensin and frze in place. As current velcity increases the frequency and frce f "impact pulses" increase and sme bulders begin rlling and jumping (i.e. bed lad) [35]. In a flw f given depth, larger particles mve upward r higher int the current and encunter faster-mving water than smaller particles [11]. Experiments with thin sheets f swift-mving water and pebbles caused the pebbles nt nly t travel upward thrugh the water, but sme were prjected ut f the water and int the air [11]. Turbulence causes mre bulders t jump higher int the flw and cntact with the sea flr decreases; then there is "cnsiderable suspended lad within the water" [35, p. 99]. Figure 2, after [35] shws the velcity needed t place a particular size bulder in suspensin, velcities needed t keep it in flw, and the velcity when it wuld be depsited. The pwer f mving water is remarkably displayed when waves and currents frm large strms "carry away" large blcks f cncrete weighing up t 2.85 X 10 kg [6], which implies a 5 m x 10 m x 20 m blck f dlmite. Anther example f pssible suspensin (i.e. "water-laid") prcess ccurred in Hawaii where a 365 m high "surge" frm a clssal wave scured the Islands and depsited tw layers f clast supprted basaltic debris [26]. The cmbined depsit is 5 m thick and thins upslpe; the lwer layer cntains subrunded t runded clasts, 3 cm -1 m diameter; whereas the upper layer cntains subangular t angular clasts ranging frm 20 em -1.5 m diameter. The depsit was triggered when a rapid submarine landslide displaced the cean water creating a wave that rushed up nt the Islands, carrying with it rck debris frm the near shre shelf and beach [26]. The rundness f clasts may be attributed t abrasin in tractive transprt [17]. The crss-bedded sandstnes that cap the breccia and mega breccia beds are interpreted as tractin depsits [36]. Each tractin depsit alternating with the suspensin breccias frmed when the current slwed t a pint where it began t depsit the sand and pebbles. Hwever, the current was still mving swiftly enugh t create the tractinal effects in the particles depsited. This effect is prduced by depsiting/rewrking currents [11]. 494

9 The questin is what culd cause suspensin breccias and megabreccias with alternating sandstnes t frm? Several prcesses, mstly catastrphic, are nw believed t frm breccias and megabreccias. These include tectnism [e.g. faulting and vlcanic explsins, see 4], landslides [44]. tsunami surge depsits generated frm submarine landslides [26,27], and sturzstrms [17,32,37]. Earthquakes are assciated with r cause mst f these events. Faulting is graphically demnstrated in majr earthquakes when a "catastrphic slip" event reaches grund surface and breaks apart the tpgraphy [44, p. 255]. The mst marked sedimentary effects f faulting are the cnglmerates, sedimentary breccias and melanges depsited in narrw znes alng active fault scarps. "A carse cnglmeratic facies develps because the upthrwn blck is subaerially expsed immediately adjacent t a sinking basin" [44, p. 262]. This fault "relief' can lead t subaerial and submarine landslides, rck falls, debris flws, and assciated chatic depsits called liststrmes which include breccias [44]. The Nnday Dlmite that rests n the Crystal Spring Frmatin and underlying crystalline basement, abut 4 and 5 km t the nrth [e.g. 16], respectively, f the measured sectins, implies a vertical displacement n the fault [e.g. 15,53] in that regin f abut 950 m (350 m thickness f the Beck Spring Dlmite m thickness f Crystal Spring Frmatin) [16]. Hwever, sectins f Kingstn Peak Frmatin imply a ttal thrw at least as great as the thickness f the frmatin itself. The 1600 m thick Megaclast Ridge sectin then requires at least 1600 m f displacement. It is nt presently knwn if this displacement is attributed t a single fault r a series f step faults. Sturzstrms are lng runut landslides r giant rck avalanches [22] that can ccur in subaerial r subaqueus envirnments; the wrd actually means "fall-stream" [32] because the debris initially falls r cllapses dwn a steep slpe and flws a cnsiderable distance acrss gentle t flat grund [4]. They are cnsidered "the mst catastrphic f all frms f mass mvement" [4] and are knwn t "flw" with mean flw velcities ranging frm 50 t 100 mls [31]. The catastrphic "mvement and emplacement f a sturzstrm depsit invlves enrmus quantities f energy thus making preservatin f fssils highly unlikely" [17]. The critical characteristics f a sturzstrm include: fluid-like mrphlgy; sheet-like gemetry; lng runut; ttal vlume> 1 x 106 m3 ; preserved headscarp stratigraphy; reverse grading; and jigsaw puzzle breccia [37]. The Kingstn Range breccias f the measured sectins have a fluid-like mrphlgy, sheet-like gemetry, sme (albeit nt abundant) jigsaw puzzle fabric, and vlumes greater than required even when nly single layers f breccia are cnsidered. Reverse grading ccurs at the Silver Rule Mine sectin with the 380 m clast at r near the tp; likewise, the largest clasts, meters acrss, ccur at r near the tp f the well studied Fish Creek [42] and the 66 m thick Split Muntain sturzstrms [17]. The megaclasts f the Split Muntain sturzstrm are thught t have been transprted, frm start t finish, while riding n tp f the debris; the nly ther pssibility is that megaclasts were buyed upward by internal mixing and turbulence [17]. It is nw well accepted that rckfalls with vlumes greater than apprximately 1 x 106 m3 "runut" ver great distances. The runut distance can be assumed t be at least 5 km (the distance frm the measured sectins t the surce area), which falls within the range f many sturzstrms [32]. The nature f the depsits imply that the runut was prbably greater but can nt be determined at this time because the measured sectins are essentially parallel t the pale slpe (Le. perpendicular t the flw). T determine lnger runut wuld require a field study f the frmatin at muntain ranges suth f the Kingstn Range. Hwever, sme [e.g. 55] believe the debris f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin extends km int the basin. Abut 70 majr submarine landslides arund Hawaii have travelled ver 20 km [27]. "Preserved headscarp stratigraphy" means that debris frm a stratigraphic layer at the surce area shuld be fund in a particular lithlgic dmain in the slide with little mixing with ther surce layers [37]. At the Kingstn Range, breccias surrunding the giant blcks shw "little mixing". Sme plymictic breccias seem t be cmpsed chiefly f rcks frm the Crystal Spring Frmatin which wuld imply that these rcks were mixed ' and depsited tgether with "little mixing" with ther depsits frm ther frmatins. The Fish Creek Sturzstrm reveals similar characteristics t thse fund in the Kingstn Peak breccias [32]. Clast cmpsitin is plymictic and there is a "prgressive lss" f internal jigsaw puzzle fabric ging away frm the surce area where clasts, up t 2 m lng, becme separated by matrix giving the appearance f a debris flw [32]. This culd explain why sme breccias, especially at Old Huse, Runded Hills, Hrse Thief Springs, and the surce area have a gd amunt f sandy matrix. Nw, if the lwer Kingstn Peak Frmatin was depsited n an "inner shelf' atp underlying Beck Spring Dlmite and Crystal Spring Frmatin, this wuld imply a water depth <60 m prir t faulting. If a single catastrphic slip ccurred, mst f the displacement was prbably n the dwnthrwn side f the fault. Shelf water, sediments, debris (e.g. large quartzite bulders and ther clasts), and huge slide blcks wuld then flw and drp ff the uplifted area ver a giant fault scarp and int the basin. 495

10 Debris flw and sturzstrm characteristics ccur in this unit; therefre, certain key prcesses can be pstulated t explain the depsitinal envirnment. In a subaqueus envirnment they culd include Bingham plastic rhelgy (already discussed in Puddingstne Unit); grain flw in fluid medium; and acustic fluidizatin (37). The fluidized grain flw hypthesis suggests that rcks in transprt during the avalanche impact each ther thrughut the slide (22) and "flw int place like sme srt f viscus fluid" (37). This thery presuppses a turbulent flwing mtin thrughut the landslide mass and mud culd frm the fluid cmpnent between clasts (37). Hwever, keeping the rck mass fluidized in this way alne requires t much energy [37]. Sme (31) believe the term "grain flw" shuld be replaced with "granular flw"; and sturzstrms, in particular, are large rapid inertial granular flws (i.e. fluidized granular flws). In this case mechanisms f flw in a subaqueus envirnment are upward mtin f a fluid that supprts part f the sediment weight; mechanical dilatin under shear and separatin f particles thrugh cllisin and rebund; and, grain separatin by vibratinal (acustic) energy. Acustic fluidizatin ccurs as grups f clasts (nt individual clast cllisins - grain flw), rganized int elastic waves larger than the size f individual clasts, pass thrugh the debris (22). This prcess places sme rcks in cmpressin and thers in extensin which allws plastic strain t accumulate. This failure is dynamic; stresses change rapidly with time as cmpressins and rarefactins shift thrugh the rck mass, allwing the entire mass t slide. This prcess cnserves energy at a much higher rate than grain flws; hwever, acustic fluidizatin and dispersive grain flw are clsely related. As the acustic field becmes strnger individual grains spend less time mving tgether as parts f an elastic wave and mre time clliding as individual rcks; thus, grain flw is the high energy end member f acustically fluidized debris (22). It is knwn that large landslides may experience fluidizatin during strng seismic events and the term "earthquake fluidizatin" may be cnsidered as a subset f acustic fluidizatin [37, p. 197]. Earthquakes add vibratinal energy t these flws and althugh the prcess can perate in a cmplete vacuum, "the presence f a fluid prbably enhances the flw" [22, p. 47). We believe rapidly flwing water ver the cataract enhanced the flw even mre. Althugh sme f the depsits have sme sturzstrm characteristics, the depsits are a cmbinatin f debris flws and rck falls. As sediment cncentratin increases, yield strength increases and flws transitin frm hypercncentrated streamflw t slurry flw t granular (i.e. cllisinal) flw. Prcesses cntrlling flw behavir depend n defrmatinal rate (i.e. velcity). Frictinal and viscus frces dminate at lwer velcities and in finer grained mixtures; whereas, rate-dependent inertial frces dminate at higher velcities and in carser grained mixtures. "As velcity increases, grain supprt mechanisms change frm lw-energy varieties (buyancy, chesin, structural supprt) t prgressively higher energy mechanisms (turbulence, dispersive stress, fluidizatin)" [31, p.1); therefre, velcities higher than matrix-supprted debris flws (i.e. puddingstnes) are needed fr clast-supprted debris flws (29). Overall, we interpret the Megabreccia Unit as clast-supprted debrites (29) with assciated rck falls and slide blcks. Megaclast Depsits at the Megaclast Ridge Sectin (KP) As shwn in Figure 1, the Puddingstne Unit at this lcatin seems t crrelate quite well with the ther lcatins; hwever, abve the Puddingstne Unit the remaining Kingstn Peak Frmatin as a whle is twice as thick cmpared t the ther studied areas. This crrelatin may imply that after depsitin f the debris flws (i.e. puddingstnes), the shelf in this area underwent additinal cllapse. Finer particles may have been winnwed (r bypassed) frm the nrth-nrthwest and funnelled t this deeper area as turbidites. At least 10 giant megaclasts, cmpsed f the Beck Spring Dlmite and Crystal Spring Frmatin, measure hundreds f meters (up t abut 1 km) alng their largest axis. They are interpreted as blcks f sedimentary material emplaced as slides and slumps called listliths (39). Evidences fr the listlith interpretatin are cntrted appearance rcks within the megaclast itself; underlying mnmictic breccia which represents breakage during sliding (39); and many small-scale irregular flds that ccur in cnjunctin with larger flds (20). The blcks f Beck Spring Dlmite are brecciated mainly arund the edges. Sme blcks f the multi-sedimentlgic Crystal Spring Frmatin were redepsited as highly flded slabs while thers maintain the riginal rder f parallel strata intact. Sme f the small scale flds, are very tightly flded and ccur nearest t the Beck Spring megaclasts. Sme flds <1m acrss exhibit apparent tensin cracks prbably caused when the elastic limit was reached during flding. Such tight flds prbably indicate that sme f the sedimentary beds f the Crystal Spring Frmatin were nt lithified during redepstin int the Kingstn Peak Frmatin. At this lcatin it is prpsed that, during debris flw and turbidity flw depsitin, large elngated masses f Beck Spring Dlmite detached frm the surce area and slid atp the upper Crystal Spring Frmatin f the surce area. This activity caused brecciatin f the Beck Spring mega clasts and pssibly began t fld sme f the underlying Crystal Spring Frmatin rcks simultaneusly until they were subsequently disldged, slid ver the scarp, and stacked int place "card-deck style" [39]. It is interesting that a debris flw is the first depsit generated when this type f failure ccurs (39). Chesive 496

11 debris flws are knwn t transprt enrmus slabs n a cushin f verpressurized r liquified mud; the resultant depsit is called a megaturbidite which are thught t riginate as a result f earthquakes f at least magnitude 7.0 [29, pp , 341). Upper Cnglmeratic Sandstne Unit (KP) This unit typically shws bedding and ranges in thickness frm 25 m in the nrthwest t 250 m in the sutheast. The sectin near Silver Rule Mine is smewhat cntrted. Mving nrthwestward alng the Kingstn Peak/Nnday cntact (i.e. twards the upper part f the 380 m lng megaclast), clasts cmprising abut 20% f the unit appear "frzen" in place vertically and at ther angles cntrary t bedding. Abut 200 m east f the 380 m blck a duble-car garage size Beck Spring Dlmite megaclast was bserved within sandy breccias f this unit. Breccia beds and dispersed clasts f pebbles, cbbles, and bulders (usually up t abut 50 cm lng) persist thrughut the unit at mst ther lcatins. The availability f clasts prbably diminished, as basement faulting ceased [19), and the entrainment f finer sediments ccurred as a result f the ncming transgressive waters that depsited the Nnday Dlmite. An analg t this unit may be the 75 m thick depsit abve the Split Muntain sturzstrm. This depsit includes turbidites, grain flw sandstnes, and bulder bearing sandstnes interstratified with mudstnes interpreted as a rapid invasin f marine waters assciated with "significant tectnic rerganizatin" [17, p.154). We culdn't have described this unit any better. The Assciated Turbidites (KP) Several bserved beds, easily interpreted as turbidites, appear intimately related t the frementined depsits. High cncentratin turbidity currents prduce a great variety f bed types r facies. These include (1) disrganized gravel; (2) disrganized pebbly sand; (3) stratified gravel; (4) inversely graded gravel; (5) nrmally graded gravel; (6) graded-stratified gravel; (7) stratified pebbly sand; (8) inversely graded pebbly sand; (9) nrmally graded pebbly sand; (10) graded-stratified pebbly sand; (11) thick/medium-bedded disrganized sands; (12) parallel-stratified sands; (13) prly srted muddy sands; (14) rganized sand-mud cuplets; (15) structureless silts; and, (16) muddy silts (29). Several f these turbidites were bserved in the field. The Silver Rule Mine sectin cntains an interesting successin f depsits while ging upsectin. Fr instance the lwer puddingstnes are interlayered with sandstne, breccia and mudstne and the carbnate is laded with black chert and Beck Spring Dlmite clasts. The upper prtin f the Puddingstne Unit and verlying strata begin a trend f inversely graded layers. First, there is a 4.5 m thick medium sandstne that grades upward int a cbble-bulder breccia fllwed by 13 m f puddingstne and then a 6 m thick medium grained sandstne with pebbles tward the tp. This is fllwed by a 9 m thick breccia layer with 0 '00 = 25 cm, which is then fllwed by a 20 m thick successin f "rhythmites". Each "rhythmite" is inversely graded and ranges in thickness frm cm. Each bed (frm bttm t tp) includes cm shale r mudstne, cm thick medium grading up t carse sandstne; and a 5-10 cm pebble layer. These reverse graded beds pass rapidly up int structureless pebbly sand and are interpreted as the "inversely graded pebbly sand" turbidite facies, which is frmed by "rapid depsitin by frictinal 'freezing' f a tractin carpet driven alng by shear at the base f the flw" [29, p. 51). Abut halfway upsectin thrugh these "inversely graded pebbly sands" is a 1.5 m thick breccia bed. After these rhyhtmites, the breccias were depsited and the general trend f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin near Silver Rule Mine is a carsening upward sequence with the giant 380 m lng megaclast at r near the tp f the frmatin. High-density turbidity currents are als knwn t travel at speeds f 100 km/hur (36). The 1929 Grand Banks turbidity current, caused by the 7.2 magnitude earthquake in the Laurentian Channel (eastern Canada), depsited a 1 m thick graded fine sand t silt layer in a water depth f abut 5200 m. Initially it suspended gravel 2 cm in diameter and depsited it in depths frm m (29). CONCLUSION We suggest that nrmal catastrphic faulting and tectnic denudatin frm high magnitude earthquake activity assciated with large-scale catastrphic plate tectnics (2) generated the debris fr the Kingstn Peak Frmatin. An initial sudden cllapse f the pre-fld cean flr caused by faulting in the crust (1) cnverted the "shelf' int a "slpe" envirnment. Debris flws were generated when clasts frm underlying frmatins were swept up int a thick, rapidly flwing slurry f sands and carbnaceus cement which laid the initial "puddingstne" depsits with assciated turbidites. The water clumn abve the cllapsed zne als fell and a series f seismic sea waves were generated (3). The Npah upland may have risen by elastic upward rebund (3). This caused extreme breakup f the tpgraphy 497

12 accmpanied by massive amunts f wave-ridden shelf water t be displaced suthward. Large-scale rck debris was carried in surges ver a great waterfall with a slpe f perhaps 60 as earthquakes persisted. We suggest that rck falls spawned the generatin f the submarine clast-supprted debris flws r suspensin-sturzstrm depsits (e.g. megabreccias). Acustically fluidized flwing sheets f rck debris and sediment-laden seawater <60 m deep rapidly rde ver the cataract. Preserved tractin depsits between megabreccia beds testify f rapid flwing suspensin f rck debris. These rhythm ic suspensin and tractin depsits prbably testify f a cntinual flw f debris ver high relief that lessened as the basin was filled. Velcities f the water-rck flws were greatest near the area f relief and lessened utward frm it. Each successive clast-supprted debris flw r suspensin-sturzstrm depsit verrde the preceding depsit. The facies change frm mstly breccias, megabreccias, tractin sands, and turbidites in the nrthwest area t mainly high cncentratin thick bedded turbidites called megabeds [29] with assciated gigantic clasts t the sutheast may represent a secnd drp ver anther fault (Le. step fault). Althugh the turbidites in this area were depsited rapidly, the giant megaclasts r listliths remained intact (much less pulverizatin) and were depsited by slumping and sliding. Velcities f debris flws (50 km/hr), turbidites ( km/hr), and sturzstrms ( km/hr) cmbined with a cntinual sediment supply and cntinual flw wuld allw the entire Kingstn Peak Frmatin at this lcatin t be depsited in a matter f hurs. We have established the stratigraphic thicknesses and the cataclysmic nature f the depsits f the Kingstn Peak Frmatin; hwever, a gd structural thesis is needed t establish the nature f the large scale crustal faulting. Detailed field and labratry studies are needed f the Crystal Spring Frmatin and Beck Spring Dlmite t verify that the "shelf' mdel is crrect. Petrlgic and gechemical studies f the Beck Spring cmpared t the Kingstn Peak dlmites, and "quartzite" bulders cmpared t quartzite and granphyre f the Crystal Spring Frmatin shuld ensue. It seems that the waters were "exceedingly vilent n the earth... [Genesis 7:19 in 13). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was cnducted in assciatin with graduate studies by bth authrs while enrlled at the Institute fr Creatin Research (lcr). Dr. Steven A. Austin, chairman f the Gelgy Department at ICR, supervised this prject. Dr. Kurt P. Wise f Bryan Cllege cntributed significantly t field descriptins and analysis. REFERENCES [1] Austin, SA, and Wise, K.P., The Pre-Fld/Fld Bundary: As Defined in Grand Canyn, Arizna and Eastern Mjave Desert, Califrnia, Prceedings f The Third Internatinal Cnference n Creatinism, RE. Walsh et ai., Editrs, 1994, Creatin Science Fellwship, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, pp [2) Austin, SA, Baumgardner, J.R., Humphreys, D.R, Snelling, A.A., and Vardiman, L., and, Wise, K.P., Catastrphic Plate Tectnics: A Glbal Fld Mdel f Earth Histry, Prceedings fthe Third Intematinal Cnference n Creatinism, RE. Walsh et ai., Editrs, 1994, Creatin Science Fellwship, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, pp [3) Bascm, W., Waves and Beaches, The Dynamics f the Ocean Surface, 1964, Anchr Bks, Dubleday and Cmpany, NY. [4) Bates, RL., and Jacksn, J.A., Glssarv f Gelgy, 2nd Ed. 1980, American Gelgical Institute, Falls Church, VA. [5) Calzia, J.P., and Trxel, B. W., Abslute age cnstraints n the age and tectnics f the middle and late Prterzic Pahrump Grup, suthern Death Valley, Califrnia, Gelgical Sciety f America Abstracts with Prgrams, 25:5(1993) p. 17. [6) Carsn, RL., The Sea Arund Us, 1961, Mentr (Penguin Grup), NY, p [7] Cndie, K.C., Plate Tectnics & Crustal Evlutin, 3rd Ed., 1989, Permagn Press, NY. 498

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