Nuclear and Radiochemistry
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1 Nuclear and Radiochemistry Third Edition Gerhart Friedlander Senior Chemist, Brookhaven National Laboratory Joseph W. Kennedy Late Professor of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis Edward S. Macias Associate Professor of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis Julian Malcolm Miller Late Professor of Chemistry, Columbia University A Wiley-lnterscience Publication JOHN WILEY & SONS New York Chichester Brisbane - Toronto
2 Contents 1. INTRODUCTION A. Early History of Radioactivity, 1 B. Radioactive Decay and Growth, 5 C. Naturally Occurring Radioactive Substances, 8 D. Artificially Produced Radioactive Substances, ATOMIC NUCLEI A. Atomic Structure, 17 B. Composition of Nuclei, 19 C. Nuclear Properties, 23 D. Mass and Binding-Energy Systematics, 41 E. Nuclear Shell Structure, RADIOACTIVE DECAY PROCESSES A. Instability of Nuclei, 54 B. Alpha Decay, 55 C. Spontaneous Fission, 68 D. Beta Decay, 74 E. Gamma Transitions, NUCLEAR REACTIONS A. Energetics, 110 B. Cross Sections, 115
3 X C. Types of Experiments, 123 D. Reaction Models and Mechanisms, 128 E. Low-Energy Reactions with Light Projectiles, 153 F. Fission, 158 G. High-Energy Reactions, 171 H. Heavy-Ion Reactions, EQUATIONS OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND GROWTH 191 A. Exponential Decay, 191 B. Growth of Radioactive Products, 193 C. Equations of Transformation during Nuclear Reactions, INTERACTION OF RADIATIONS WITH MATTER 206 A. Positive Ions, 206 B. Electrons, 221 C. Electromagnetic Radiation, 224 D. Neutrons, 233 E. Radiation Protection, RADIATION DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT 243 A. Gaseous Ion Collection Methods, 243 B. Semiconductor Detectors, 252 C. Detectors Based on Light Emission, 261 D. Track Detectors, 265 E. Neutron Detectors, 270 F. Auxiliary Instrumentation, 272 G. Health Physics Instrumentation, 276 H. Calibration of Instruments, 279
4 Xi 8. TECHNIQUES IN NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY 287 A. Target Preparation, 287 B. Target Chemistry, 292 C. Preparation of Samples for Activity Measurements, 303 D. Determination of Half Lives, 308 E. Decay Scheme Studies, 311 F. In-Beam Nuclear-Reaction Studies, 318 G. Determination of Absolute Disintegration Rates, STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RADIOACTIVITY MEASUREMENTS 339 A. Data with Random Fluctuations, 339 B. Probability and the Binomial Distribution, 343 C. Radioactivity as a Statistical Phenomenon, 345 D. Poisson and Gaussian Distributions, 349 E. Statistical Inference, 351 F. Experimental Applications, NUCLEAR MODELS 366 A. Nuclear Forces, 367 B. Nuclear Matter, 375 С Fermi Gas Model, 378 D. Shell Model, 379 E. Collective Motion in Nuclei, 388 F. Summary and Comparisons of Nuclear Models, RADIOCHEMICAL APPLICATIONS 410 A. Tracers in Chemical Applications, 410 B. Analytical Applications, 424
5 xii C. Hot-Atom Chemistry, 435 D. Radiochemistry Applied to Nuclear Medicine, 442 E. Artificially Produced Elements, NUCLEAR PROCESSES AS CHEMICAL PROBES 458 A. Mössbauer Effect, 459 B. Positron Annihilation, 467 C. Muon Chemistry, 471 D. Perturbed Angular Correlations of Gamma Rays, 476 E. Photoelectron Spectroscopy, NUCLEAR PROCESSES IN GEOLOGY AND ASTROPHYSICS 482 A. Geo- and Cosmochronology, 482 B. Nuclear Astrophysics, NUCLEAR ENERGY 520 A. Basic Principles of Chain-Reacting Systems, 520 B. Reactors and Their Uses, 525 C. Reactor-Associated Problems, 533 D. Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions, SOURCES OF NUCLEAR BOMBARDING PARTICLES 552 A. Charged-Particle Accelerators, 552 B. Photon Sources, 578 C. Neutron Sources, 581 D. Measurement of Beam Energies and Intensities, 589 APPENDIX A. Constants and Conversion Factors
6 APPENDIX B. APPENDIX С APPENDIX D. APPENDIX E. APPENDIX F. Relativistic Relations Center-of-Mass System Table of Nuclides Gamma-Ray Sources Selected References to Nuclear Data Compilations XÜi NAME INDEX 665 SUBJECT INDEX 669
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