Propeller and Kaplan Turbines

Transcription

1 An Internet Book on Fluid Dynamics Propeller and Kaplan Turbines Propeller and Kaplan turbines are axial flow machines in which the flow through the runner is predominantly axial. A typical Kaplan turbine is shown in figure 1. The primary difference between the two is that the runner blades in a propeller turbine are fixed while the runner blades of a Kaplan turbine have an adjustable inclination. Further examination of the fluid mechanics of these axial flow turbines requires definition of a thin cylindrical element of the flow through the runner at one particular radial location, r. Unwrapping that element it becomes a linear cascade with an infinite array of identical blades as shown in figure. Figure 1: Schematic of a Kaplan turbine. The flow through this linear cascade (and, by extension and integration, through the turbine impeller as a whole) can be analyzed in a manner parallel to that used for an axial flow pump in section (Mbcb). Here we provide just an outline of that approach using the control volume indicated in figure. Applying the momentum theorem to this control volume, the forces, F x and F y, imposed by the fluid on each blade (per unit depth normal to the sketch), are given by F x = (p 1 p )h (Mdf1) F y = ρhv m (w 1 cos β 1 w cos β ) (Mdf) where, as a result of continuity, v m1 = v m = v m. To proceed, we define the vector mean of the relative velocities, w 1 and w, as having a magnitude w M and a direction β M, where by simple geometry cot β M = 1 (cot β 1 +cotβ ) w M = v m sin βm (Mdf3) (Mdf4)

2 Figure : Schematic of a linear cascade showing the blade geometry, the periodic control volume and the definition of the lift, L, and drag, D, forces on a runner blade. It is conventional and appropriate (as discussed below) to define the lift, L, and the drag, D, components of the total force on a blade, (F x + F y ) 1, as the components normal and tangential to the vector mean velocity, w M. More specifically, as shown in figure, L = F x cos β M + F y sin β M (Mdf5) D = F x sin β M F y cos β M (Mdf6) where L and D are forces per unit depth normal to the sketch. Non-dimensional lift and drag coefficients are defined as C L = L 1 ρw M c ; C D = D 1 ρw M c (Mdf7) Estimates of C D and C L then permit evaluation of the total head loss in the runner and therefore the hydraulic performance of the runner. This will lead to a relation for the total head drop through the impeller as a function of the flow rate. To continue we resume the fluid mechanical analysis begun in section (Mdi) by observing that we could modify the relation (Mdi1) to include viscous losses by writing that p 1 p =Δp T L ρ ( w 1 w) (Mdf8) where Δp T L denotes the total pressure loss in the flow through the runner caused by viscous effects. In frictionless flow, Δp T L = 0, and the relation (Mdf8) becomes the Bernoulli equation in rotating coordinates (equation (Mdi1) and (Mdi)) with r 1 = r as is appropriate here. A dimensionaless loss coefficient, f, will be defined as f =ΔpL T ρw M (Mdf9) Equations (Mdf1) through (Mdf9) can be manipulated to obtain expressions for the lift and drag coefficients as follows

3 ******************** FROM THE PUMP SECTION: The list of fundamental relations is complete if we write the expression for the pressure difference across the cascade as p 1 p =Δp T L ρ ( w 1 w) (Mbcb8) where Δp T L denotes the total pressure loss across the cascade caused by viscous effects. In frictionless flow, Δp T L = 0, and the relation (Mbcb8) becomes the Bernoulli equation in rotating coordinates (equation (Mbbg1) with r 1 = r as is appropriate here). A nondimensional loss coefficient, f, is defined as f =Δp T L ρw M (Mbcb9) Equations (Mbcb1) through (Mbcb9) can be manipulated to obtain expressions for the lift and drag coefficients as follows C D = f sin β M s (Mbcb10) C L = (1 sin β M ) s [ ψ φ sin β M + f(φ cos β M sin β M ) sin β M ] (Mbcb11) where s = ch is the solidity, ψ is the head coefficient, (p T p T 1 ) ρω R,andφ is the flow coefficient, v m ΩR. Note that in frictionless flow CD =0andC L =ψ sin β M φs; then the total force (lift) on the foil is perpendicular to the direction defined by the β M of equation (Mbcb3). This provides confirmation that the directions we chose in defining L and D (see figure??) were appropriate for, in frictionless flow, C D must indeed be zero. Also note that equations (Mbcb1) through (Mbcb9) yield the headflow characteristic given by ψ = φ (cot β 1 cot β ) fφ sin β M which, when there is no inlet swirl or prerotation so that tan β 1 = φ, becomes ψ =1 φcot β f [φ + 14 ] (1 + φ cot β ) (Mbcb1) (Mbcb13) In frictionless flow, when the discharge is parallel with the blades (β = β b ), this, of course, reduces to the characteristic equation (Mbbg4). Note that the use of the relation (Mbcb13) allows us to write the expression (Mbcb11) for the lift coefficient as C L = s [ sin β M(cot β 1 cot β M ) f cos β M ] (Mbcb14) Figure 3: Calculated headflow characteristics for some linear cascades. Figure 3 presents examples of typical headflow characteristics resulting from equation (Mbcb13) for some chosen values of β and the friction coefficient, f. It should be noted that, in any real turbomachine, f will not be constant but will vary substantially with the flow coefficient, φ, which determines the angle of incidence and other flow characteristics. More realistic cases are presented a little later in figure 4. The observant reader will have noted that all of the preceding equations of this section involve only the inclinations of the flow and not of the blades, which have existed only as ill-defined objects that achieve the turning of the flow. In order to progress further, it is necessary to obtain a detailed solution of the

4 flow, one result of which will be the connection between the flow angles (β M, β ) and the geometry of the blades, including the blade angles (β b, β b1, β b ). A large literature exists describing methods for the solutions of these flows, but such detail is beyond the scope of this text. As in most high Reynolds number flows, one begins with potential flow solutions, for which the reader should consult a modern text, such as that by Horlock (1973), or the valuable review by Roudebush (1965). König (19) produced one of the earliest potential flow solutions, namely that for a simple flat plate cascade of infinitely thin blades. This was used to generate figure 5. Such potential flow methods must be supplemented by viscous analyses of the boundary layers on the blades and the associated wakes in the discharge flow. Leiblein (1965) provided an excellent review of these viscous flow methods, and some of his basic methodology will be introduced later. To begin with, however, one can obtain some useful insights by employing our basic knowledge and understanding of lift and drag coefficients obtained from tests, both those on single blades (airfoils, hydrofoils) and those on cascades of blades. One such observation is that the lift coefficient, C L, is proportional to the sine of the angle of attack, where the angle of attack is defined as the angle between the mean flow direction, β M, and a mean blade angle, β bm.thus C L = m L sin(β bm β M ) (Mbcb15) where m L is a constant, a property of the blade or cascade geometry. In the case of frictionless flow (f =0), the expression (Mbcb15) may be substituted into equation (Mbcb14), resulting in an expression for β M. When this is used with equation (Mbcb13), the following headflow characteristic results: ψ = m Ls sin β bm 4+m L s sin β bm [ 1 φ ( cot β bm + v θ1 v m1 )] (Mbcb16) where, for convenience, the first factor on the right-hand side is denoted by ψ 0 = m [ Ls sin β bm = 1+ cot β ] 1 cot β b (Mbcb17) 4+m L s sin β bm cot β 1 cot β The factor, ψ 0, is known as the frictionless shut-off head coefficient, since it is equal to the head coefficient at zero flow rate. The second expression for ψ 0 follows from the preceding equations, and will be used later. Note that, unlike equation (Mbcb13), the headflow characteristic of equation (Mbcb16) is given in terms of m L and practical quantities, such as the blade angle, β bm, and the inlet swirl or prerotation, v θ1 vm1. Figure 4: Calculated headflow characteristics for a linear cascade using blade drag coefficients given by equation (Mbcb18) with C D0 =0.0. The corresponding characteristics with C D0 = m D = 0 are shown in figure 3. It is also useful to consider the drag coefficient, C D, for it clearly defines f and the viscous losses in the cascade. Instead of being linear with angle of attack, C D will be an even function so an appropriate empirical result corresponding to equation (Mbcb15) would be C D = C D0 + m D sin (β bm β M ) (Mbcb18) where C D0 and m D are constants. Some headflow characteristics resulting from typical values of C D0 and m D are shown in figure 4. Note that these performance curves have a shape that is closer to practical performance curves than the constant friction factor results of figure 3.

5 Figure 5: The performance parameter, ψ 0, as a function of solidity, s, for flat plate cascades with different blade angles, β b. Adapted by Wislicensus (1947) (see also Sabersky, Acosta and Hauptmann 1989) from the potential flow theory of König (19).