1 Kompiuterių aritmetika ir algoritmai. 2 Tiesinių lygčių sistemų sprendimo metodai: 3 Duomenų aproksimacija: 4 Tikrinių reikšmių uždavinys.

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1 Skaitiniai metodai Skaitiniai metodai Kompiuterių aritmetika ir algoritmai Olga Štikonienė Diferencialinių lygčių ir skaičiavimo matematikos katedra, MIF VU Skaitiniai metodai randa matematinių uždavinių, užrašytų algebrinėmis formulėmis (kurias vykdo kompiuteris), sprendinius. Mes išmoksime suformuluoti sprendimo metoda; įvertinti metodo tinkamuma, jo privalumus ir trūkumus. Simulation techniques aim at: Solving the right equations! Solving the equations right! Solving the equations fast! Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 2 / 44 Kurso tikslai Turinys: Įgyti galimybę skaitiškai spręsti taikomuosius uždavinius; 2 Įvertinti skirtingus skaitinius sprendimo metodus (žinant jų privalumus ir trūkumus); 3 Rašyti, taikyti ir testuoti kompiuterines programas. Sandas: Supažindinama su skaitiniais metodais sprendžiant įvairaus tipo uždavinius. Pateikiami teoriniai tokių uždavinių stabilumo ir konvergavimo analizės pagrindai. Supažindinama su aprioriniais ir aposterioriniais paklaidos nustatymo būdais. Mokoma kaip įveikti skaičiavimo metu iškylančius įvairius sunkumus. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 3 / 44 Kompiuterių aritmetika ir algoritmai. 2 Tiesinių lygčių sistemų sprendimo metodai: tiesioginiai metodai; iteraciniai metodai; variaciniai metodai. 3 Duomenų aproksimacija: Funkcijų interpoliavimas; Interpoliavimas splainais; Mažiausių kvadratų metodas. 4 Tikrinių reikšmių uždavinys. 5 Netiesinių lygčių sprendimas. 6 Funkcijų optimizavimo metodai. 7 Skaitinis integravimas: paklaidos įvertinimo būdai; adaptyvieji metodai. 8 Diferencialinių lygčių skaitiniai sprendimo metodai. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 4 / 44 : Literatūra Paskaitos Kompiuterinės pratybos Pažymys = AD+Egz = Skaitiniai metodai V.Būda, R.Čiegis. Skaičiuojamoji matematika, Vilnius: TEV, B.Kvedaras, M.Sapagovas. Skaičiavimo metodai, V.: Mintis, K. Plukas. Skaitiniai metodai ir algoritmai, Kaunas: N. lankas, 2. 4 V.Būda, M.Sapagovas. Skaitiniai metodai. Algoritmai, uždaviniai, projektai. Vilnius: Technika A.Quarteroni, F.Saleri and P. Gervasio. Scientific Computing with MATLAB and Octave. Springer, 2. 6 J.H.Mathews, K.D.Fink. Numerical methods Using MATLAB, Prentice Hall, U.M.Ascher, C.Greif. A First Course on Numerical Methods, SIAM, 2. redir_esc=y 8 R.Čiegis. Diferencialinių lygčių skaitiniai sprendimo metodai. Vilnius: Technika, A.Quarteroni, R.Sacco, F.Saleri. Numerical Mathematics, Springer, 2. W.H.Press, S.A.Teukolsky, W.T.Vetterling, B.P.Flannery. Numerical Recipes in C. The Art of Scientific Computing. Second Edition Cambridge University Press. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 5 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 6 / 44 Tikslus ar apytikslis sprendinys? p(x) = a 4 x 4 + a 3 x 3 + a 2 x 2 + a x + a 4-osios eilės daugianaris p(x) = a 4 x 4 + a 3 x 3 + a 2 x 2 + a x + a 5-osios eilės daugianaris q(x) = d 5 x 5 + d 4 x 4 + d 3 x 3 + d 2 x 2 + d x + d Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 7 / 44 Here are three more examples of problems that can be solved in principle by a finite sequence of elementary operations, like rootfinding for p. (i) Linear equations: solve a system of n linear equations in n unknowns. (ii) Linear programming: minimize a linear function of n variables subject to m linear constraints. (iii) Traveling salesman problem: find the shortest tour between n cities. q(x) = d 5 x 5 + d 4 x 4 + d 3 x 3 + d 2 x 2 + d x + d And here are five that, like rootfinding for q, cannot generally be solved in this manner. (iv) Find an eigenvalue of an n n matrix. (v) Minimize a function of several variables. (vi) Evaluate an integral. (vii) Solve an ordinary differential equation (ODE). (viii) Solve a partial differential equation (PDE). Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 8 / 44

2 IV.22. Set Theory 65 Istorinė apžvalga (iš The Princeton Companion to Mathematics) Table Some algorithmic developments in the history of numerical analysis. Year Development Key early figures 263 Gaussian elimination Liu, Lagrange, Gauss, Jacobi 67 Newton s method Newton, Raphson, Simpson 795 Least-squares fitting Gauss, Legendre 84 Gauss quadrature Gauss, Jacobi, Christoffel, Stieltjes 855 Adams ODE formulas Euler, Adams, Bashforth 895 Runge Kutta ODE formulas Runge, Heun, Kutta 9 Finite differences for PDE Richardson, Southwell, Courant, von Neumann, Lax 936 Floating-point arithmetic Torres y Quevedo, Zuse, Turing 943 Finite elements for PDE Courant, Feng, Argyris, Clough 946 Splines Schoenberg, de Casteljau, Bezier, de Boor 947 Monte Carlo simulation Ulam, von Neumann, Metropolis 947 Simplex algorithm Kantorovich, Dantzig 952 Lanczos and conjugate gradient iterations Lanczos, Hestenes, Stiefel 952 Stiff ODE solvers Curtiss, Hirschfelder, Dahlquist, Gear 954 Fortran Backus 958 Orthogonal linear algebra Aitken, Givens, Householder, Wilkinson, Golub 959 Quasi-Newton iterations Davidon, Fletcher, Powell, Broyden 96 QR algorithm for eigenvalues Rutishauser, Kublanovskaya, Francis, Wilkinson 965 Fast Fourier transform Gauss, Cooley, Tukey, Sande 97 Spectral methods for PDE Chebyshev, Lanczos, Clenshaw, Orszag, Gottlieb 97 Radial basis functions Hardy, Askey, Duchon, Micchelli 973 Multigrid iterations Fedorenko, Bakhvalov, Brandt, Hackbusch 976 EISPACK, LINPACK, LAPACK Moler, Stewart, Smith, Dongarra, Demmel, Bai 976 Nonsymmetric Krylov iterations Vinsome, Saad, van der Vorst, Sorensen 977 Preconditioned matrix iterations van der Vorst, Meijerink 977 MATLAB Moler 977 IEEE arithmetic Kahan 982 Wavelets Morlet, Grossmann, Meyer, Daubechies 984 Interior methods in optimization Fiacco, McCormick, Karmarkar, Megiddo 987 Fast multipole method Rokhlin, Greengard 99 Automatic differentiation Iri, Bischof, Carle, Griewank Taikomosios matematikos dalis, skirta įvairių sričių (fizikinių, biologinių, cheminių, ekonominių ir t.t.) uždavinių sprendimui naudojant virtualiojo eksperimento metodika. Uždavinio sprendimo įrankiai: analiziniai sprendiniai, artutiniai metodai, skaitiniai metodai, statistiniai metodai, grafikai, ir t. t. Taikoma mokslinių tyrimų programinė įranga. thanskaitiniai half of themetodai authors of (MIF the EISPACK, VU) LINPACK, and Iserles, A., modeliavimas ed Acta Numerica (annual Komp.aritmetika volumes). ir algoritmai 9 / 44 LAPACK libraries. Even the dates can be questioned; the Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. fast Fourier transform is listed as 965, for example, Nocedal, J., and S. J. Wright Numerical Optimization. since that is the year of the paper that brought it to New York: Springer. Powell, M. J. D. 98. Approximation Theory and Methods. the world s attention, though Gauss made the same discovery 6 years earlier. Nor should one imagine that Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richtmyer, R. D., and K. W. Morton Difference Methods for Initial-Value Problems. New York: Wiley Inter- the years from 99 to the present have been a blank! No doubt in the future we shall identify developments science. from this period that deserve a place the table. modeliavimas Further Dažniausiai Reading taikoma mokslinių tyrimų IV.22 programinė Set Theory įranga Ciarlet, P. G The Finite Element Method for Elliptic Joan Bagaria Problems. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Golub, G. H., and C. F. Van Loan Matrix Computations, Introduction 3rd edn. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Hairer, E., Maple S. P. Nørsett (for volume I), and G. Wanner. 993, Among all mathematical disciplines, set theory occupies a special place because it plays two very different 996. Solving Mathematica, Ordinary Differential Wolfram Equations, Alpha volumeswww.wolfram.com/products/mathematica, I and II. New York: Springer. roles at the same time: on the one hand, it is an area of Simboliniai skaičiavimai. Gera grafika. Matematiniai skaičiavimai. Labai gerai tinka bakalauro studijoms. Sage - free open-source mathematics software system. Maxima is a computer algebra system maxima.sourceforge.net. MATLAB Skaitinių metodų taikymas. Daug modulių (Toolboxes): veiksmams su matricom, optimizavimui, neuroniniams tinklams, sistemų modeliavimui (Symulink) ir t.t. Tinka spręsti didelius uždavinius. O-Matrix, Mlab du iš daugelio Matlab- panašių produktų, Octave, FreeMat, Scilab SAS SAS (Statistical Analysis System) galingiausia statistinės analizės programa. Trūkumas didelė kaina. SPSS SPSS populiariausia statistinė sistema. Siauresnių nei SAS galimybių, bet pigesnė. R R - nemokama statistinės analizės programa su aukšto lygio grafika. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai / 44 Matematiniu uždaviniu sprendimo etapai Aiškiai suformuluoti problema Aprašyti Įvestį/Išvestį (Input/Output) (analizinis) sprendimas Algoritmas skaitinis sprendimo metodas Testavimas ir derinimas (Debugging) Rezultatų pateikimas ir jų analizė modeliavimas: Taikomieji arba fizikiniai ti i uždaviniai Skaičiavimai ir rezultatų analizė Skaitinis metodas Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 2 / 44 Taikomieji arba fizikiniai uždaviniai Diskretizavimas Stebimi reiškiniai Sprendimo algoritmas Efektyvumas Tikslumas Patikimumas Taikomieji Formuluojami arba fizikiniaipagrindiniai uždaviniai dėsniai PVZ.: Formuluojami pagrindiniai dėsniai, valdantys tyrimo objektą Formuluojami pagrindiniai dėsniai, valdantys tyrimo objekta Pavyzdys? Vykdymas Programinė įranga Duomenų struktūra Kompiuterių architektūra Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 3 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 4 / 44 Taikomieji arba fizikiniai uždaviniai Formuluojami pagrindiniai dėsniai, valdantys tyrimo objektą Dėsniai užrašomi kaip lygčių sistema (algebrinių, diferencialinių, integralinių, gali būti ir netiesinė) PVZ.: Algebrinė lygtis F = ma Paprastoji diferencialinė lygtis F = m dv dt, F = x md2 dt 2 Diferencialinė lygtis dalinėmis išvestinėmis (matematinės fizikos lygtis) u t = 2 u x u y 2 Pavyzdys x = 2? Skaitinis metodas Užrašomi diskretusis ir skaičiavimo algoritmas Metodų savybės: Konvergavimas į sprendinį; Konservatyvumas; Korektiškumas; Realizavimo galimybės. nes jei Pavyzdys Diskretusis x = 2 x < 2, Skaičiavimo algoritmas 2 > 2 = 2. x 2 x n = 2 (x n + 2 x n ), x = 2 (x + 2 x ) yra geresnis artinys. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 5 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 6 / 44

3 Algoritmas Sprendimo užrašymas tam tikra veiksmų seka, kuria reikia atlikti norint pasiekti tam tikra rezultata algoritmo schema ir pseudokodas. Algoritmo realizavimas kompiuterine programa. Testavimas Tikrinima ar kompiuterinė programa iš tikrųjų sprendžia būtent ta uždavinį, kurį reikia spręsti. Tikrinima ar tikrai randamas nagrinėjamo uždavinio sprendinys. Skaitinis tikslumas, stabilumas ir efektyvumas. Rezultatų analizė Gautų skaičiavimo rezultatų atitinkamumo realiam taikomajam uždaviniui kritinė analizė. Reikia nusimanyti ne tik programavime, bet ir technikoje, fizikoje ir t.t. Rezultatų pateikimas Skaičiavimo rezultatų perdavimas žmonėms, kurie nori žinoti atsakyma: Klientams; Darbdaviams, viršininkams; Tikrintojams; Sutarties dalyviams. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 7 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 8 / 44 Skaičiavimai ir rezultatų analizė Skaičiavimo algoritmas 2 =, x n = 2 (x n + 2 x n ), x = x =, 5 x 2 =, 467 x 3 =, 4426 Uždavinio skaitinio sprendimo paklaida. Paklaidų šaltiniai ir klasifikacija Matematinio modelio paklaida (dėl atmestų faktorių) Metodo paklaida (dėl įtrauktų į modelį faktorių) Apvalinimo paklaida (uždavinio salygotumas, jautrumas, algoritmo stabilumas) Taikomasis arba fizikinis uždavinys x = T f ( t )dt x = N cf i ( ti) N ε c ε m x exp ε h i= ε a Skaitinis Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 9 / 44 ˆx Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 2 / 44 Some disasters caused by numerical errors Patriot Missile Failure. On February 25, 99, during the Gulf War, an American Patriot Missile battery in Dharan, Saudi Arabia, failed to intercept an incoming Iraqi Scud missile. The Scud struck an American Army barracks and killed 28 soldiers. An inaccurate calculation of the time since boot due to computer arithmetic errors. Explosion of the Ariane 5 (June 4, 996). Only about 4 seconds after initiation of the flight sequence, at an altitude of about 37 m, the launcher veered off its flight path, broke up and exploded. The rocket was on its first voyage, after a decade of development costing $7 billion. The destroyed rocket and its cargo were valued at $5 million. 64bit float -> 6bit int. The number was larger than the largest integer storeable in a 6 bit signed integer, and thus the conversion failed. The Sleipner A platform ( Norway on 23 August 99) produces oil and gas in the North Sea and is supported on the seabed at a water depth of 82 m. The crash caused a seismic event registering 3. on the Richter scale, and left nothing but a pile of debris at 22m of depth. The failure involved a total economic loss of about $7 million. Inaccurate finite element approximation of the linear elastic model of the tricell (using the popular finite element program NASTRAN). Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 2 / 44 Uždavinio skaitinio sprendimo paklaida I Matematinio modelio paklaida (dėl atmestų faktorių): Netikslus uždavinio matematinis aprašymas; Duomenų paklaida. Nepašalinamoji paklaida x exp - tikslusis sprendinys, x - matematinio modelio sprendinys, ε m = x x exp. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 22 / 44 Uždavinio skaitinio sprendimo paklaida II Metodo paklaida (dėl įtrauktų į modelį faktorių): aproksimavimas tikslumas, aritmetinių veiksmų skaičius. x - matematinio modelio sprendinys, x N - sprendinys, gaunamas realizuojant skaitinį metoda. ε h = x N x. Apvalinimo paklaida (uždavinio salygotumas, jautrumas, algoritmo stabilumas): įvedant duomenis; atliekant aritmetinius veiksmus; išvedant duomenis. Skaičiuojamoji paklaida x N - sprendinys, gaunamas realizuojant skaitinį metoda, ˆx - realiai gaunamas sprendinio artinys. ε a = ˆx x N. Pilnoji paklaida ε = ε m + ε h + ε a. Dažnai įvedamas matas, pvz., skaliarų atvejų: ε = ˆx x exp, ε ε m + ε h + ε a. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 23 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 24 / 44

4 (pavyzdžiai) Skaičiojamoji paklaida ε m Taikomasis arba fizikinis uždavinys ε c = x ˆx. x = T f ( t )dt x = N cf i ( ti) N ε c x exp ˆx ε h i= ε a Skaitinis Tegul ˆx yra skaičiaus x artinys. Absoliučioji paklaida x = x ˆx. Santykinė paklaida δ x = x ˆx. x x = 3, 4592, ˆx = 3, 4 yra jo artinys x = x ˆx =, 592; δ x = x ˆx x =,592 3,4592 =, 57. y = 99999, ŷ = yra jo artinys. y = - didelė; δ y, - maža. ŷ yra geras skaičiaus y artinys. z =, 25, ẑ =, yra jo artinys. z =, 25; δ z =, 25 - didelė (25 %). ẑ yra blogas skaičiaus z artinys. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 25 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 26 / 44 (pavyzdžiai) x = n!, Stirlingo formulė ˆx = S n = 2πn ( ) n n e yra n! artinys x = x ˆx δ x = x ˆx x. n n! S n x δ x Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 27 / 44 Apytikslių skaičių sumos paklaida ˆx = x ± x, ŷ = y ± y yra skaičių x ir y artiniai. Pagal trikampio nelygybę (x + y) (ˆx + ŷ) = (x ˆx) + (y ŷ) (x ˆx) + (y ŷ) = x + y. Analogiškai (x y) (ˆx ŷ) = (x ˆx) (y ŷ) (x ˆx) + (y ŷ) = x + y. Dviejų apytikslių skaičių sumos ar skirtumo absoliučioji paklaida yra ne didesnė už tų skaičių absoliučiųjų paklaidų suma. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 28 / 44 Apytikslių skaičių sandaugos paklaida Apytikslių skaičių dalmens paklaida ˆx = x ± x, ŷ = y ± y yra skaičių x ir y artiniai. Jų sandaugos santykinė paklaida ˆxŷ = (x ± x)(y ± y) = xy ± x y ± y x ± x y ˆxŷ ± x y ± y x ± x y δ xy = = ± x y ± y x ± x y ± x y ± y x = δ x + δ y. ˆx = x ± x, ŷ = y ± y yra skaičių x ir y artiniai. Analogiškai jų dalmens santykinė paklaida δ x/y = x y ˆx ŷ ± x y y x x y = x(y ± y) ± x y y x x + y = δ x + δ y. x y Dviejų apytikslių skaičių sandaugos ar dalmens santykinė paklaida yra ne didesnė už tų skaičių santykinių paklaidų suma. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 29 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 3 / 44 Aritmetinių veiksmų paklaidos Algebra Paprastas Tarkime, kad skaičius gali būti užrašytas naudojant mantisę (4 skaitmenys ir ženklas) ir eilę (2 skaitmenys ir ženklas). Pavyzdžiui, ±.XXXX ±XX (mantisė M turi tenkinti salyg a. M <.) Taip galima užrašyti 4 mln. skirtingų skaičių. (šeši skaitmenys - nuo iki 9 ir du ženklai ). Didžiausias skaičius yra, Mažiausias nenulinis skaičius, 99. a + b = a b = =. (a + b) + c a + (b + c) ( ) = =.. + ( ) = =. a2 a (. 6 ) 2 =. 99 = Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 3 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 32 / 44

5 Aritmetinių veiksmų paklaidos Apskaičiuokime naudojant simbolinius skaičiavimus (MATLAB, Symbolic Math Toolbox) 2 be simbolinių skaičiavimų Matlab realmax =.7977e+38 a=.e+38; b=.e+38;c=-.e+38; a+b+c = Inf a+(b+c) =.99e+38 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 33 / 44 Aritmetinių veiksmų paklaidos. pavyzdys. Kvadratinės lygties sprendimas: x 2 bx + = D = b 2 4 x = b + D 2, x 2 = b D. 2 Tegul b 2 ir D yra dideli vienodo didumo skaičiai. Pertvarkome x 2 : x 2 = (b D)(b + D) 2(b + D) = b2 D 2(b + D) = 4 2(b + D) = 2 (b + D). Dviejų artimų skaičių skirtumas potencialus didelės paklaidos šaltinis! Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 34 / 44 Aritmetinių veiksmų paklaidos. pavyzdys. Apvalinimo paklaidos įtaka (pavyzdys) Kvadratinės lygties x 2 97x + = sprendimas: D = 945, D = 96, tiksliai: x 2 =, 3; Skaičiuojame apvalindami iki 5 skaitmenų po kablelio: taisyklė. standartiškai: racionalizuojant: x 2 =, 5; x 2 =, 3. Algoritma reikia sudaryti taip, kad nebūtų atimami dideli (palyginant su skirtumu) vienodo didumo skaičiai. Kvadratinės lygties x 2 54, 32x +, = sprendimas. Tikslus sprendinys x = 54, , x 2 =, Apskaičiuokime x ir x 2 naudojant 4 reikšminius skaitmenis (four-digit floating-point arithmetic). D = b 2 4ac = ( 54, 32) 2, 4 = 295, 4 = 54, 32. x,4sk = b + D 2a x 2,4sk = b D 2a Santykinė paklaida = = 54, , 32 54, 32 54, 32 δ x = x x,4sk x % =, 33%, δ x2 = %. = 8, 6 = 54, 3. =, =,. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 35 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 36 / 44 Aritmetinių veiksmų paklaidos (pavyzdys) Aritmetinių veiksmų paklaidos (pavyzdžiai) Aritmetinių veiksmų eiliškumas x =, ; ˆx =, ; x =, ; δ x = x, = =,. x, Tegul skaičius y = ŷ = x, =. Tada ˆx, = y =, δ y =,. Dalyba iš mažo skaičiaus => absoliuti paklaida didėja. Absoliuti paklaida padidėjo kartų. Santykinė paklaida nepakito. 2 taisyklė. Algoritma reikia sudaryti taip, kad nebūtų dalybos iš mažo skaičiaus. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 37 / 44 Sumavimas (single precision arithmetic): N n n= N Sumuojame nuo iki N Sumuojame nuo N iki tiksliai 2 5, , , , , , , , ,985 2,95 2,95 6 4, , , ,4368 6,6863 6, ,4368 8,8792 8, taisyklė. Algoritma reikia sudaryti taip, kad skaičiai būtų sudedami jų didėjimo tvarka kompiuterių aritmetikoje skaičių perstatomumo ir jungiamumo dėsnis veikia ne visada. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 38 / 44 Apskaičiuokime daugianario reikšmę taške x = c. algoritmas Atskirai apskaičiuokime x, x 2,..., x n, po to f (x) = a n x n + a n x n + + a x + a n a i x i i= f := a su visais i nuo iki n x i := su visais j nuo iki i x i := x i c ciklo pagal j pabaiga f := f + a i x i ciklo pagal i pabaiga ( n) + n = n(n+) 2 + n = n(n+3) 2 daugybos veiksmų n sudėties veiksmų Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 39 / 44 2 Apskaičiuokime daugianario reikšmę taške x = c: 2 algoritmas f := a x i := c su visais i nuo iki n f := f + a i x i x i := x i c ciklo pagal i pabaiga Kai n f (x) = a n x n + a n x n + + a x + a 2n daugybos veiksmų n sudėties veiksmų algoritmo daugybų skaičius n(n + 3) = =, 25(n + 3). 2 algoritmo daugybų skaičius 2(2n) 2 algoritmas taupesnis už algoritma,25(n+3) kartų. Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 4 / 44

6 3 3 algoritmas Hornerio schema f (x) =a n x n + a n x n + + a x + a =( ((a n x + a n )x + a n 2 )x + + a )x + a f := a n su visais i nuo n iki žingsniu - f := f c + a i ciklo pagal i pabaiga n daugybos veiksmų n sudėties veiksmų 3 algoritmas: daugybos veiksmų sumažėja 2 kartus, palyginti su 2 algoritmu. Reikšminiai skaitmenys (angl. Significant Digits ) Reikšminis skaitmuo Skaitmuo, turintis įtakos skaičiaus reikšmei. Jį pašalinus, pakinta skaičiaus reikšmė visi skaitmenys reikšminiai, 5,5 - du paskutiniai skaitmenys (nuliai) nereikšminiai. 32-bitų sistemose: 7 reikšminiai skaitmenys; 64-bitų sistemose: 7 reikšminių skaitmenų; Dvigubas tikslumas (double precision): apvalinimo paklaida sumažinama, skaičiavimo laikas (CPU time) didėja. π = 3, transcendentinis skaičius skaičiuojant naudojama jo aproksimacija (pvz., 3,4 arba 22/7; 3,459 didesniam tikslumui). e = 2, =, Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 4 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 42 / 44 Nereikšminiai skaitmenys Slankiojo kablelio skaičiai 3, 25/, 96 =, (MATLAB) Praktiškai atsakymas suapvalintas, 65 arba, 66. Kodėl? Nežinomas yra sekantis (po šimtųjų) reikšmingas skaitmuo: { 3, 259/, 96 =, , 3, 25/, 969 =, { 3, 254/, 955 =, , 3, 245/, 964 =, Realieji skaičiai (floating-point numbers - slankiojo kablelio skaičiai). sign signed exponent mantissa sign (ženklas) (neigiamiems) arba (teigiamiems) exponent (laipsnio rodiklis) teigiamas arba neigiamas mantissa (skaičiaus mantisė) reikšminiai skaitmenys Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 43 / 44 Skaitiniai metodai (MIF VU) Komp.aritmetika ir algoritmai 44 / 44

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