FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

Transcription

1 *A \ FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS Second Edition John D. Anderson, Jr. Professor of Aerospace Engineering University of Maryland H ' McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto

2 CONTENTS Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition xv xvii Part 1 Fundamental Principles Chapter 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts Importance of Aerodynamics: Historical Examples Aerodynamics: Classification and Practical Objectives Road Map for This Chapter Some Fundamental Aerodynamic Variables Aerodynamic Forces and Moments Center of Pressure Dimensional Analysis: The Buckingham Pi Theorem Flow Similarity Fluid Statics: Buoyancy Force Types of Flow Applied Aerodynamics: The Aerodynamic Coefficients Their Magnitudes and Variations Historical Note: The Illusive Center of Pressure Problems 71 Chapter 2 Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental Principles and Equations and Road Map Review of Vector Relations Models of the Fluid: Control Volumes and Fluid Elements Continuity Equation Momentum Equation 97 ix

3 X CONTENTS 2.6 An Application of the Momentum Equation: Drag of a Two-Dimensional Body Energy Equation Interim Substantial Derivative Fundamental Equations in Terms of the Substantial Derivative Pathlines and Streamlines of a Flow Angular Velocity, Vorticity, and Strain Circulation Stream Function Velocity Potential Relationship between the Stream Function and Velocity Potential Problems 148 Part II Inviscid, Incompressible Flow Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flow t and Road Map Bernoulli's Equation Incompressible Flow in a Duct: The Venturi and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Pitot Tube: Measurement of Airspeed Pressure Coefficient Condition on Velocity for Incompressible Flow Governing Equation for Irrotatiorial, Incompressible Flow: Laplace's Equation Interim Uniform Flow: Our First Elementary Flow Source Flow: Our Second Elementary Flow Combination of a Uniform Flow with a Source and Sink Doublet Flow: Our Third Elementary Flow Nonlifting Flow over a Circular Cylinder,^J95 ; 3.14 Vortex Flow: Our Fourth Elementary Flow " $ Lifting Flow over a Cylinder The Kutta-Joukowski Theorem and the Generation of Lift Nonlifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies: The Numerical * Source Panel Method Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over a Circular Cylinder The Real Case Historical Note: Bernouli and Euler The Origins of Theoretical Fluid Dynamics Historical Note: d'alembert and His Paradox Problems 245

4 CONTENTS Xi Chapter 4 Incompressible Flow over Airfoils Airfoil Nomenclature Airfoil Characteristics Philosophy of Theoretical Solutions for Low-Speed Flow over Airfoils: The Vortex Sheet The Kutta Condition Kelvin's Circulation Theorem and the Starting Vortex Classical Thin Airfoil Theory: The Symmetric Airfoil The Cambered Airfoil Lifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies: The Vortex Panel Numerical Method Modern Low-Speed Airfoils Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over an Airfoil The Real Case Historical Note: Early Airplane Design and the Role of Airfoil Thickness Historical Note: Kutta, Joukowski, and the Circulation Theory of Lift Problems 314 Chapter 5 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings : Downwash and Induced Drag The Vortex Filament, the Biot-Savart Law, and Helmholtz's Theorems Prandtl's Classical Lifting-Line Theory A Numerical Nonlinear Lifting-Line Method Lifting-Surface Theory; Vortex Lattice Numerical Method Applied Aerodynamics: The Delta Wing Historical Note: Lanchester and Prandtl The Early Development of Finite-Wing Theory Historical Note: Prandtl The Man Problems 374 Chapter 6 Three-Dimensional Incompressible Flow * Three-Dimensional Source Three-Dimensional Doublet Flow over a Sphere General Three-Dimensional Flows: Panel Techniques Applied Aerodynamics: The Flow over a Sphere The Real Case ' 390 Problems 390

5 Xii CONTENTS Part III Inviscid, Compressible Flow Chapter 7 Compressible Flow: Some Preliminary Aspects A Brief Review of Thermodynamics Definition of Compressibility Governing Equations for Inviscid, Compressible Flow Definition of Total (Stagnation) Conditions Some Aspects of Supersonic Flow: Shock Waves Problems 418 Chapter 8 Normal Shock Waves and Related Topics The Basic Normal Shock Equations Speed of Sound Special Forms of the Energy Equation When Is a Flow Compressible? Calculation of Normal Shock-Wave Properties Measurement of Velocity in a Compressible Flow Problems 452 Chapter 9 Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves Oblique Shock Relations "Supersonic Flow over Wedges and Cones Shock Interactions and Reflections Detached Shock Wave in Front of a Blunt Body Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves Shock-Expansion Theory: Applications to Supersonic Airfoils Historical Note: Ernst Mach A Biographical Sketch Problems 497 Chapter 10 Compressible Flow through Nozzles, Diffusers, and Wind Tunnels Governing Equations for Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow 10.3 Nozzle Flows 10.4 Diffusers 10.5 Supersonic Wind Tunnels 10.6 Problems

6 CONTENTS Xiii Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils: Linear Theory The Velocity Potential Equation 533 The Linearized Velocity Potential Equation 536 Prandtl-Glauert Compressibility Correction 542,, Improved Compressibility Corrections 546 Critical Mach Number 547 Drag-Divergence Mach Number: The Sound Barrier 551 The Area Rule 554 The Supercritical Airfoil 556 Historical Note: High-Speed Airfoils Early Research and Development 559 Historical Note: Richard T. Whitcomb Architect of the Area Rule and the Supercritical Wing Problems 566 Linearized Supersonic Flow Derivation of the Linearized Supersonic Pressure Coefficient Formula 570 Application to Supersonic Airfoils Problems 577 to Numerical Techniques for Nonlinear Supersonic Flow 579 : Philosophy of Computational Fluid Dynamics 579 Elements of the Method of Characteristics 581 Supersonic Nozzle Design 589 Elements of Finite-Difference Methods 592 The Time-Dependent Technique: Application to Supersonic Blunt Bodies Problems 608 Elements of Hypersonic Flow 6ii^ 611 Qualitative Aspects of Hypersonic Flow * 612 Newtonian Theory 616 The Lift and Drag of Wings at Hypersonic Speeds: Newtonian Results for a Flat Plate at Angle of Attack 620 Hypersonic Shock-Wave Relations and Another Look at Newtonian Theory 627 Mach Number Independence Problems 635

7 Viscous Flow to the Fundamental Principles and Equations of Viscous Flow Qualitative Aspects of Viscous Flow Viscosity and Thermal Conduction The Navier-Stokes Equations The Viscous Flow Energy Equation Similarity Parameters Solutions of Viscous Flows: A Preliminary Discussion Problems Some Special Cases; Couette and Poiseuille Flows Couette Flow: General Discussion Incompressible (Constant Property) Couette Flow Compressible Couette Flow Two-Dimensional Poiseuille Flow to Boundary Layers Boundary-Layer Properties The Boundary-Layer Equations Incompressible Flow over a Flat Plate: The Blasius Solution Compressible Flow over a Flat Plate Results for Turbulent Boundary Layers Final Comments Problems Navier-Stokes Solutions: Some Examples The Approach Examples of Some Solutions Appendixes Insentropic Flow Properties Normal Shock Properties Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach Angle Bibliography Index $