Scramjet Propulsion. Volume 189 PROGRESS IN ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS

Transcription

1 Scramjet Propulsion Edited by E.T. Curran Department of the Air Force Dayton, OH S.N.B. Murthy Purdue University West Lafayette, IN Volume 189 PROGRESS IN ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS Paul Zarchan, Editor-in-Chief Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, Virginia

2 Contents Preface xxi Introduction xxiii I. International Efforts xxiii II. Inlets, Combustors, and Fuels xxiv III. Overall Systems xxiv IV. Future Developments xxv V. Closing Comments xxv References xxvi Chapter 1 Scramjet Testing in the T3 and T4 Hypersonic Impulse Facilities 1 Nomenclature 1 I. History, Aims, and Developments 2 II. Facility and Instrumentation 5 III. Fuel-Injection Systems 6 A. Wall-Injection Combustion Results 8 B. Wall-Injection Film-Cooling Results 10 C. Port-Injection Results 11 D. Central Injection 13 IV. Combustion/Mixing Processes 17 A. Mixing Controlled Combustion 18 B. Kinetically Controlled Combustion... ~. 18 C. - Shock-Induced Ignition 19 D. Shock-Induced Mixing 20 V. Simple Theoretical Combustor and Thrust Model 21 VI. Experimental Results of Specific Impulse 25 VII. Effects of Atomic Oxygen and Nitric Oxide in the Freestream.. 30 VIII. Different Fuels 32 A. Hydrocarbon Fuels 32 B. Silane-Enriched Fuels 34 IX. Integrated Scramjet Measurements 35 X. Skin-Friction Measurements 40 XL Discussion and Review 42 Acknowledgments 43 Bibliography 43 Chapter 2 Scramjet Developments in France 47 I. Historical Overview 47 II. Basic Research on Diffusion Flame Combustion ( ).. 49 vii

3 viii CONTENTS A. Combustion in a Cylindrical Duct 49 B. FreejetTest 55 C. Combustion in a Divergent Duct 56 D. Synthesis 59 III. ESOPE Program ( ). 59 A. Origin and Principal Aims 59 B. Studies Results 63 C. Synthesis 80 IV. Studies on Shock-Induced Combustion 81 A. Principle 81 B. ENSMA and LATECAM Studies 82 V. Prepha Program ( ) 84 A. Origin and Principal Aims 84 B. System Studies 85 C. Development of New Test Facilities 88 D. Numerical Means 90 E. Development of Scramjet Components 93 F. Materials and Cooled Structures 101 G. Flight Testing 101 VI. Perspectives 103 A. Space Application 106 B. Missile Application 109 References 112 Chapter 3 Scramjet Investigations Within the German Hypersonics Technology Program ( ) 119 I. German Hypersonics Technology Program and Scramjet-Related Activities A. German Hypersonics Technology Program 119 B. Scramjet Related Activities Within the HTP 120 II. Theoretical Investigations for Scramjet Intake Designs A. Activities at Dasa-MT633 \ B. Activities at RWTH Aachen 131 III. Theoretical and Experimental Investigations of Scramjet Combustion at TsAGI and DLR Lampoldshausen. 137 A. Combustor Model Design 137 B. Fuel-Injection Modules 140 C. Test Results 140 IV. Freejet Wind-tunnel Testing of Scramjet Propulsion Systems at TsAGI 144 A. Scramjet Propulsion System Model Concept 144 B. Testing Focus 145 C. Test Results 145 V. Considerations for Flight Testing Small-Scale Scramjet Modules Using the RADUGA-D2 Flying Testbed A. Objectives for Flight Testing 149

4 CONTENTS ix B. RADUGA-D2 Flying Testbed 149 C. Flight Test Trajectory and Integration of Scramjet in the RADUGA-D2 150 References 158 Chapter 4 Scramjet Engine Research at the National Aerospace Laboratory in Japan 159 Nomenclature I. Introduction II. Engine Model 161 A. Inlet 164 B. Struts and Ramps 164 C. Isolator, Fuel Injector, and Combustor 165 D. Combustor Downstream Section and Nozzle 169 E. LH 2 -Cooled Model 170 III. Test Facility 170 A. Outline 170 B. Components 172 C. Calibration of the RJTF 174 IV. Measurements A. General Features B. Engine Exit Survey 178 V. 5 Test Results A. General Features of the Engine Operation B. Mach4Tests 187 C. Mach 6 Tests 191 D. Mach 8 Tests 199 E. Liquid-Hydrogen-Cooled Engine Tests 202 VI. Supplementary Studies for Engine Testing. :-.- A. 1 Computational Fluid Dynamics B. Chemical Quenching in Gas-Sampling Probes C. Subscale Wind-Tunnel Testing D. Reaction Kinetic Studies on the Scramjet ; VII. Conclusions and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References 215 Chapter 5 Scramjet Research and Development in Russia I. Introduction. 223 II. Initial Stage of Scramjet Investigations ( ) 226 III. Scramjet Investigations in A. TsAGI Investigations 235 B. CIAM Investigations 246 C. ITAM Investigations 252 D. MAI Investigations 256 IV. Short Remarks on Scramjet Inlet and Nozzle Developments

5 CONTENTS V. Conclusion 268 Bibliography 269 Appendix A: Three Problems in Supersonic Combustion 284 A.I. Retardation of Heat Release in Supersonic Diverging-Area Combustor 284 A. Introduction ". 284 B. Formulation 284 C. Results 287 D. Qualitative Analysis of Results E. Conclusions References 295 A.II. Combustion Stabilization in Supersonic Flow Using Free Recirculating Bubble 296 A. Introduction 296 B. Estimation of Minimum Dimension of Recirculating Bubble Needed for Self-Ignition and Combustion Stabilization 296 C. Scheme of the Experiment: Facility and Tests Conditions D. Experimental Model E. Tests Methodology and Measurements F. Experimental Results 302 G. Conclusions 308 Acknowledgements 309 References 309 A.III. The Enhancement of Liquid Hydrocarbon Supersonic Combustion Using Effervescent Sprays and Injectors with Noncircular Nozzles 310 A. Introduction 310 B. Experimental Facility: Test Methodology 310 C. Test Results : : 315 D. Conclusions < Acknowledgments 320 References 320 Appendix B: Deceleration of Supersonic Flows in Smoothly Diverging-Area Rectangular Ducts 321 Bibliography 337 Appendix C: Some Aspects of Scramjet-Vehicle Integration References 353 Appendix D: Leading-Edge Bluntness Effect on Performance of Hypersonic Two-Dimensional Air Intakes 353 Introduction 353 Isolated Two-Dimensional Intake 355 Underwriting Intake. References

6 CONTENTS xi Chapter 6 Scramjet Performance 369 Introduction 369 Cycle Considerations Flow Nonuniformity and Cycle Performance Inlet 377 Sidewall Compression Concepts 377 Interactive Inlet Design 381 Inlet/Isolator Interactions Combustor Hypersonic Combustion Physics 387 Simulation Requirements 388 Experimental Simulation 390 Comparison of Combustion Data 396 Instrumentation/Measurement Requirements 400 Computational Simulation 403 Computational Methods Combustor Performance Index Thrust Potential Nozzle Engine/Vehicle System Integration Forebody/Inlet 414 Nozzle/Afterbody Concluding Remarks Appendix A: Central Institute of Aviatian Motors NASA MACH 6.5 Scramjet Flight Test 419 Introduction 419 Experimental Apparatus and Test Conditions Flight and Ground-Test Results Appendix B: NASA'S Hyper-X Program 424 Introduction 424 Flight-Test Vehicle Design and Fabrication...' Flight-Test Plans Hyper-X Technology Acknowledgments References, Chapter 7 Scramjet Inlets 447 Nomenclature 447 I. Introduction 449 II. Definitions of Performance Parameters 451 III. Inlet Design Issues 462 A. Starting and Contraction Limits 462 B. High-Temperature Effects 466 C. Blunt Leading-Edge Effects 470 D. Viscous Phenomena 477 E. Boundary-Layer Separation 483 F. Isolators/Supersonic Diffusers 489

7 xii CONTENTS G. Combustor Entrance Profiles 489 IV. Engine Cycle Calculations 489 V. Performance Measurement Techniques 492 VI. Design and Performance of Scramjet Inlets 495 A. Two-Dimensional Planar Designs 495 B. Two-Dimensional Axisymmetric Designs 498 C. Three-Dimensional Inlet Designs 499 D. Performance Characteristics 500 VII. Summary and Recommendations for Future Investigations References 504 Chapter 8 Supersonic Flow Combustors 513 Nomenclature 513 I. Introduction 514 II. Phenomenological Considerations 517 A. Inlet Flow 517 B. Combustor Flow 521 III. Design Approach Implications 527 A. Step Combustors 527 B. Isolator Combustors 535 IV. Fuel Injection Basics 539 A. Wall Jets 541 B. In-Stream Injectors 545 C. Hypermixers 547 D. Mixing V. High Mach Number Implications A. Mixing 552 B. Combustor Reactions 554 C. CFD Solution Results =... : 555 D. Design Philosophy 561 Appendix A: Inlet One-Dimensional Continuity and Energy Flow Solution Appendix B: Profile Flow Solution \ Appendix C: Entropy Limit Concept 566 Appendix D: Combustor Thrust Potential Concept 566 References 567 Chapter 9 Aerothermodynamics of the Dual-Mode Combustion System 569 Nomenclature 569 I. Introduction 570 II. H-K Diagram 571 A. Scramjet and Ramjet H-K Diagrams 573 B. H-K Diagram Closure 577 III. Dual-Mode Combustion System 577 A. Dual-Mode Concept 577

8 CONTENTS xiii B. Ramjet Mode (Subsonic Combustion) 579 C. Scramjet Mode (Supersonic Combustion) 579 D. Transition from Scramjet to Ramjet Mode 580 IV. One-Dimensional Flow Analysis of the Isolator-Burner System. 582 A. Control Volume Analysis of the Isolator 583 B. One-Dimensional Flow Analysis of the Burner ' 584 C. Establishing a Choked Thermal Throat 5858 V. System Analysis of Isolator-Burner Interaction A. Scramjet with Shock-Free Isolator B. Scramjet with Oblique Shock Train 587 C. Scramjet with Normal Shock Train 588 VI. Interpretation of Experimental Data 588 A. Billig's Experimental Wall-Pressure Measurements 590 VII. Closure 593 References 594 Chapter 10 Basic Performance Assessment of Scram Combustors I. Introduction II. Scram-Combustor Effectiveness A. Kinetic Energy Efficiency 601 B. Energy Availability Efficiency 604 C. Stagnation Pressure Efficiency 606 D. Combustion Process 607 E. Set of Efficiencies III. Computational Tool and Limitations A. One-Dimensional Calculation Scheme 611 IV. General Illustrative Studies 613 A. Parametric Studies 613 B. Results V. Specific Illustrative Studies A. Hypersonic Research Engine 639 B. Direct Connect Combustion Tests due to Waltrup and Billig (1973) \ 648 C. NASA Langley Direct-Connect Tests due to Northam, Greenberg, and Byington (1989) 654 D. Free Piston Shock Tunnel Experiments due to Paull (1993) E. Test Data due to (1) Sabel'nikov, Voloschenko, Ostras, Sermanov, and Walther (1993) and (2) Mescheryakov and Sabel'nikov (1981) VI. Scaling Performance and Geometry ' A. Approach 670 B. Ignition Delay Estimate 672 C. Pressure Rise Along Combustor 673 VII. Combustor-Based System Integration 677 A. Inlet and Nozzle Efficiency 677 B. Inlet Layout 678

9 xiv CONTENTS C. Nozzle Layout References Appendix A: Efficiency Relations 680 Simple Efficiency Interrelations References Appendix B: Heat Addition to a Supersonic Gas Flow 682 I. Constant Pressure Heat Addition in a Duct 682 II. Constant Mach Number Heat Addition in a Duct III. Heat Addition in a Constant Area Duct IV. Heat Addition in a General Diverging Area Duct 684 V. Heat Addition Following a Shockwave 684 VI. Efficiencies in Heat Addition 688 References 689 Appendix C: Hydrogen Combustion Scheme 689 I. Thermodynamic Properties 690 II. Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Combustion 690 Appendix D: Three-Dimensional Nozzles Design and Integration 693 I. Internal Flowpath II. Integration with the Vehicle External Flow Chapter 11 Strutjet Rocket-Based Combined-Cycle Engine 697 I. Introduction 697 II. Strutjet Engine 698 A. Flow-Path Description 699 B. Engine Architecture 701 C. Strutjet Operating Modes 707 D. Optimal Propulsion System Selection III. Strutjet Engine/Vehicle Integration 717 A. Strutjet Reference Mission 717 B. Engine-Vehicle Considerations 720 C. Vehicle Pitching Moment 720 D. Engine Performance 721 E. Reduced Operating Cost Through Robustness 722 F. Vehicle Comparisons 729 IV. Available Hydrocarbon and Hydrogen Test Data and Planned Future Test Activities 733 A. Storable Hydrocarbon System Tests. 734 B. Gaseous Hydrogen System Tests. 744 C. Planned Flight Tests 750 V Maturity of Required Strutjet Technologies 753 VI. Summary and Conclusions 753 A. Hydrogen and Hydrocarbon Strutjet Engines 755 B. Strutjet Technology Maturity 755 C. Overall Recommendation 755 References 755

10 CONTENTS xv Chapter 12 Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels for Hypersonic Propulsion 757 Nomenclature I. Introduction II. Fuel Heat-Sink Requirements and the Role of Endothermic Fuels 762 A. Characteristics of Endothermic Fuels 763 B. Fundamental Considerations of Heat Removal III. Fuel System Challenges A. Thermal Stability 771 B. Structural and Heat Transfer Considerations 781 C. Fuel-System Integration and Control 783 IV. Combustion Challenges 784 A. Chemical Kinetic Foundations 788 B. Present State of Chemical Kinetics 797 C. Combustor Development Considerations 800 D. Prospects for Modeling Large Kinetic Systems V. Summary Acknowledgments 802 Bibliography Addendum Recent Work Appendix: Basic Elements of Chemical Kinetic Mechanisms Thermochemical and Kinetic Databases 814 Construction and Validation of Comprehensive Combustion Models 815 Formal Routes to Sensitivity Analyses and Mechanism Reduction 817 Skeletal Models 820 Chapter 13 Detonation-Wave Ramjets 823 Introduction 823 Experimental Evidence of Standing Detonation Waves. \ Operating Envelope of Standing Detonation Waves Fuel/Air Premixing Process 841 Performance Analysis 847 Scramjet/Airframe-Integrated Waverider 879 Concluding Remarks 883 Acknowledgments 885 References : Chapter 14 Problem of Hypersonic Flow Deceleration by Magnetic Field 891 Introduction 891 Peculiarities of MHD Control. 891 Review of Proposals to Use MHD Control

11 xvi CONTENTS Contents of the Present Article...'. 897 Relative Value of MHD Effects in Hypersonic Airflows 898 Electroconductivity of Air and Dimensionless MHD Parameters Behind a Normal Shock Wave in a Hypersonic Flow 898 Evaluation of Capabilities of Conductivity Increase in Pure Air. 899 Equations of Magnetic Gas Dynamics at Small Magnetic Reynolds Numbers. Main Parameters. Methods of Numerical Analysis 901 Equations of Magnetic Gasdynamics and Main Dimensionless Parameters 901 Parameters Describing Irreversible Losses in MHD Flows MHD Deceleration of a Hypersonic Flow in One-Dimensional Approach 906 Numerical Method for Solution of MHD Equation System Boundary-Layer Separation Parameter in Magnetogasdynamics 909 Parameter of Boundary-Layer Separation in the Case of Nonconducting Wall 909 Parameter of Boundary-Layer Separation in the Case of Conducting Wall 914 Deceleration of a Supersonic Flow in a Circular Nonconducting Tube by an Axisymmetric Magnetic Field Flow Deceleration in a Circular Tube by Magnetic Field of a Single-Current Loop 915 Flow Deceleration in a Circular Tube by Magnetic Field of a Solenoid 922 Deceleration of Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow in Channels by Magnetic Field Perpendicular to a Flow Plane In Generator Regime 928 Formulation of a Problem -- : Quasi-One-Dimensional Approximation for Electrical Variables 930 Numerical Analysis of Laminar and Turbulent Flows Conclusions <, References 936 Chapter 15 Rudiments and Methodology for Design and Analysis of Hypersonic Airbreathing Vehicles 939 Introduction. 939 Rudiments of Design 941 Coordinate System 941 Force Accounting System 942 Nominal SSTO Vehicle/Trajectory 945 Loads 946 Stability and Control '. 948 Representative Forces and Moments 950

12 CONTENTS xvii Impact of Propulsion Lift on Aerodynamics 952 Engine/Airframe Integration Methodology 956 Engineering Methods 957 Higher-Order Numerical Methods 966 Vehicle Design Methodology 968 Aerodynamics/Aerothermodynamics.969 Structures/TPS Sizing 969 Closure 971 Vehicle Performance 971 Synthesis/Sizing 972 Design Automation/Optimization 972 Summary 975 Acknowledgments 975 References 975 Chapter 16 Transatmospheric Launcher Sizing 979 Nomenclature 979 I. Introduction 982 A. Theme 982 B. Objectives 983 II. Vehicle Sizing Approach 983 A. Approach 984 B. Sizing Methodology 985 C. Fundamental Sizing Relationships 987 D. Effect of r on Configuration Concepts 989 E. Parametric Sizing Interactions 989 F. Summary of Parameter Groups 990 G. External Aerodynamics 992 H. Technology Maturity Determination 994 III. Propulsion Systems 996 A. Performance Characteristics of Air Breathing Engines B. Major Sequence of Propulsion Cycles 1000 C. Cycle Comparison ' IV. Sizing Code 1011 A. Hypersonic Convergence Sizing Code 1011 B. Final Hypersonic Convergence Relationships 1012 C. Vandenkerckhove Sizing Code 1014 V. VDK Sizing Approach 1014 A. Weight Budget B. Volume Budget 1018 C. Input Values Assumptions 1019 D. Volume and Weight Assumptions 1020 E. Aerodynamics ': 1021 F. Propulsion 1021 G. Trajectory 1022 VI. SSTO Launcher Sizing 1022

13 xviii CONTENTS A. Determination of Vehicle Length 1023 B. Design 1026 C. Mission 1039 D. Geometry 1043 E. Strong Parameter Cross-Couplings 1048 VII. TSTO Launcher Sizing 1051 A. Assumptions 1052 B. Volume and Weights 1053 C. Propulsion 1053 D. Aerodynamics 1053 E. Trajectory 1054 F. First Stage 1054 G. Second Stage 1056 H. TSTO Sizing Results 1057 I. Influence of First Stage Propulsion Concept 1058 J. Discussion of Results 1058 VIII. Comparison Between SSTO and TSTO 1059 IX. Air Liquefaction and LOX Collection 1063 A. Propulsion System Configuration 1063 B. Sizing Model Modifications and Assumptions 1065 C. Application to SSTO 1067 D. Application to TSTO 1072 E. Summary 1072 X. Conclusions 1075 References 1076 Appendix A: Hypersonic Configuration Geometric Characteristics 1084 Appendix B: Impact of Lower Speed Thrust Minus Drag Propulsion Airframe Strong Interactions 1089 References * Appendix B: Impact of Lower Speed Thrust Minus Drag Propulsion Airframe Strong Interactions 1097 References 1103 Chapter 17 Scramjet Flowpath Integration 1105 I. Background 1105 A. Scramjet-Powered Vehicles 1105 B. Flowpath Optimization 1112 II. Energy Analysis A. Hypersonic Energy Partitioning 1119 B. Summary and Statement of the Design Problem 1122 III. Inlet : A. Some Useful Direct Relations 1125 B. Flowfield in the Inlet Flowpath Introduces Distortion Parameters 1127 C. Determination of # WP 1129

14 CONTENTS xix D. Inlet Testing and Determination of /C wp 1130 E. Implications of Thermodynamic Analysis to Design of Inlets 1132 IV. Forebody 1134 A. Forebody Design 1134 B. Inlet Forebody Integration 1137 V. Force Accounting 1140 A. Force Accounting Viewpoint 1138 B. Lift Drag 1150 C. Flow Turning and Overall Design of Inlet 1152 D. Force Accounting Approaches 1158 VI. Combustor 1158 A. Isolator 1159 B. Dual-Mode Combustor Isolator 1161 C. Detonation Wave Engine 1168 D. Application to a Dual-Mode Combustor 1169 E. Scramjet 1177 F. Friction Cycle 1181 G. Step Combustor, 1190 H. Summary 1196 VII. Nozzle Component Losses A. Standard Loss Categories B. Expansion Process Physics 1198 VIII. Integration Results 1201 A. Partitioning of Internal Flowpath 1201 B. Engine Module Flowpath Integration 1202 C. Scramjet Integration and Example D. Vehicle Mass Properties E. Mass Fraction Required 1205 F. Closure -.. : 1208 IX. Summary and Recommendations Bibliography Appendix A: Dynamics of a Flight Vehicle 1218 A. Cruise Flight B. Accelerated Flight C. Application to a Constant I sp Engine 1219 D. Application to a Constant V-I sp Engine 1220 Appendix B: Brayton Cycle Scramjet 1221 Appendix C: Aerothermodynamics of Scramjet Engine 1222 A. Pressure Coefficient 1222 B. Engine Cycle Thermodynamic Functions 1224 C. Boundary-Layer Influence 1226 D. Experimental Determination of Inlet K wp 1232 E. Ratio of Specific Heats for Air 1236 F. Further Analysis of Thermal Ratio 1238 Appendix D: Hypersonic Slender Body Theory Applied to Forebodies and Leading Edges 1240

15 xx CONTENTS A. Forebodies B. Leading Edges C. Case of Unequal Angles 1244 D. Overspeed Situation in an Inlet 1245 Appendix E: Scaling Drag and Heat Transfer 1249 A. Skin-Friction Coefficient 1249 B. Heat Transfer 1252 Appendix F: Force Accounting Procedures A. Freestream Force Accounting B. Cowl-to-Tail Accounting 1257 C. Lift Effects 1257 Appendix G: Geometry and Mass of Integrated Vehicle A. Geometry 1258 B. Weight Analysis 1262 Appendix H: Two-Wave Combustion Model for Optimal Supersonic Combustion Performance 1269 A. Heat Addition in a Dual-Mode Combustor B. Scramjet Two-Wave Combustor Appendix I: Base Pressure Estimate 1280 A. Required Pressure at Reattachment 1280 B. Closure 1289 Nomenclature for Flow Path Component Specification 1290