Springer. of Acoustics. Springer. Thomas D. Rossing (Ed.) With CD-ROM, 962 Figures and 91 Tables

Transcription

1 Springer of Acoustics Thomas D. Rossing (Ed.) With CD-ROM, 962 Figures and 91 Tables Springer

2 XIII Contents List of Abbreviations )0(1 1 Introduction to Acoustics Thomas D. Rossing Acoustics: The Science of Sound Sounds We Hear Sounds We Cannot Hear: Ultrasound and Infrasound Sounds We Would Rather Not Hear: Environmental Noise Control Aesthetic Sound: Music Sound of the Human Voice: Speech and Singing How We Hear: Physiological and Psychological Acoustics Architectural Acoustics Harnessing Sound: Physical and Engineering Acoustics Medical Acoustics Sounds of the Sea 6 References 6 Part A Propagation of Sound 2 A Brief History of Acoustics Thomas D. Rossing Acoustics in Ancient Times Early Experiments an Vibrating Strings, Membranes and Plates Speed of Sound in Air Speed of Sound in Liquids and Solids Determining Frequency Acoustics in the 19th Century The 20th Century Conclusion 23 References 23 3 Basic Linear Acoustics Alan D. Pierce Introduction Equations of Continuum Mechanics Equations of Linear Acoustics Variational Formulations Waves of Constant Frequency Plane Waves 47

3 XIV Contents 3.7 Attenuation of Sound Acoustic Intensity and Power Impedance Reflection and Transmission Spherical Waves Cylindrical Waves Simple Sources of Sound Integral Equations in Acoustics Waveguides, Ducts, and Resonators Ray Acoustics Diffraction Parabolic Equation Methods 107 References Sound Propagation in the Atmosphere Keith Attenborough A Short History of Outdoor Acoustics Applications of Outdoor Acoustics Spreading Losses Atmospheric Absorption Diffraction and Barriers Ground Effects Attenuation Through Trees and Foliage Wind and Temperature Gradient Effects an Outdoor Sound Concluding Remarks 142 References Underwater Acoustics William A. Kuperman, Philippe Roux Ocean Acoustic Environment Physical Mechanisms SONAR and the SONAR Equation Sound Propagation Models Quantitative Description of Propagation SONAR Array Processing Active SONAR Processing Acoustics and Marine Animals A Appendix: Units 201 References 201 Part B Physical and Nonlinear Acoustics 6 Physical Acoustics Mack A. Breazeale, Michael McPherson Theoretical Overview Applications of Physical Acoustics 219

4 Contents XV 6.3 Apparatus Surface Acoustic Waves Nonlinear Acoustics 234 References Thermoacoustics Gregory W. Swift History Shared Concepts Engines Dissipation Refrigeration Mixture Separation 253 References Nonlinear Acoustics in Fluids Werner Lauterbom, Thomas Kurz, Iskander Akhatov Origin of Nonlinearity Equation of State The Nonlinearity Parameter B/A The Coefficient of Nonlinearity ß Simple Nonlinear Waves Lossless Finite-Amplitude Acoustic Waves Thermoviscous Finite-Amplitude Acoustic Waves Shock Waves Interaction of Nonlinear Waves Bubbly Liquids Sonoluminescence Acoustic Chaos 289 References 293 Part C Architectural Acoustics 9 Acoustics in Halls for Speech and Music Anders Christian Gade Room Acoustic Concepts Subjective Room Acoustics Subjective and Objective Room Acoustic Parameters Measurement of Objective Parameters Prediction of Room Acoustic Parameters Geometric Design Considerations Room Acoustic Design of Auditoria for Specific Purposes Sound Systems for Auditoria 346 References 349

5 XVI Contents 10 Concert Hall Acoustics Based an Subjective Preference Theory Yoichi Ando Theory of Subjective Preference for the Sound Field Design Studies Individual Preferences of a Listener and a Performer Acoustical Measurements of the Sound Fields in Rooms 377 References Building Acoustics James Cowan Room Acoustics General Noise Reduction Methods Noise Ratings for Steady Background Sound Levels Noise Sources in Buildings Noise Control Methods for Building Systems Acoustical Privacy in Buildings Relevant Standards 424 References 425 Part D Hearing and Signal Processing 12 Physiological Acoustics Eric D. Young The External and Middle Ear Cochlea Auditory Nerve and Central Nervous System Summary 452 References Psychoacoustics Brian C.J. Moore Absolute Thresholds Frequency Selectivity and Masking Loudness Temporal Processing in the Auditory System Pitch Perception Timbre Perception The Localization of Sounds Auditory Scene Analysis Further Reading and Supplementary Materials 494 References Acoustic Signal Processing William M. Hartmann Definitions Fourier Series 505

6 Contents XVII 14.3 Fourier Transform Power, Energy, and Power Spectrum Statistics Hilbert Transform and the Envelope Filters The Cepstrum Noise Sampled data Discrete Fourier Transform The z-transform Maximum Length Sequences Information Theory 528 References 530 Part E Music, Speech, Electroacoustics 15 Musical Acoustics Colin Gough Vibrational Modes of Instruments Stringed Instruments Wind Instruments Percussion Instruments 641 References The Human Voice in Speech and Singing Björn Lindbiom, Johan Sundberg Breathing The Glottal Sound Source The Vocal Tract Filter Articulatory Processes, Vowels and Consonants The Syllable Rhythm and Timing Prosody and Speech Dynamics Control of Sound in Speech and Singing The Expressive Power of the Human Voice 706 References Computer Music Perry R. Cook Computer Audio Basics Pulse Code Modulation Synthesis Additive (Fourier, Sinusoidal) Synthesis Modal (Damped Sinusoidal) Synthesis Subtractive (Source-Filter) Synthesis Frequency Modulation (FM) Synthesis FOFs, Wavelets, and Grains 728

7 XVIII Contents 17.8 Physical Modeling (The Wave Equation) Music Description and Control Composition Controllers and Performance Systems Music Understanding and Modeling by Computer Conclusions, and the Future 740 References Audio and Electroacoustics Mark F. Davis Historical Review The Psychoacoustics of Audio and Electroacoustics Audio Specifications Audio Components Digital Audio Complete Audio Systems Appraisal and Speculation 778 References 778 Part F Biological and Medical Acoustics 19 Animal Bioacoustics Neville H. Fletcher Optimized Communication Hearing and Sound Production Vibrational Communication lnsects Land Vertebrates Birds Bats Aquatic Animals Generalities Quantitative System Analysis 799 References Cetacean Acoustics Whitlow W. L. Au, Marc 0. Lammers Hearing in Cetaceans Echolocation Signals Odontocete Acoustic Communication Acoustic Signals of Mysticetes Discussion 830 References Medical Acoustics Kirk W. Beach, Barbrina Dunmire Introduction to Medical Acoustics 841

8 Contents XIX 21.2 Medical Diagnosis; Physical Examination Basic Physics of Ultrasound Propagation in Tissue Methods of Medical Ultrasound Examination Medical Contrast Agents Ultrasound Hyperthermia in Physical Therapy High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) in Surgery Lithotripsy of Kidney Stones Thrombolysis Lower-Frequency Therapies Ultrasound Safety 892 References 895 Part G Structural Acoustics and Noise 22 Structural Acoustics and Vibrations Antoine Chaigne Dynamics of the Linear Single-Degree-of-Freedom (1-DOF) Oscillator Discrete Systems Strings and Membranes Bars, Plates and Shells Structural-Acoustic Coupling Damping Nonlinear Vibrations Conclusion. Advanced Topics 957 References Noise George C. Maling, Jr Instruments for Noise Measurements Noise Sources Propagation Paths Noise and the Receiver Regulations and Policy for Noise Control Other Information Resources 1010 References 1010 Part H Engineering Acoustics 24 Microphones and Their Calibration George S. K. Wong Historic References an Condenser Microphones and Calibration Theory Reciprocity Pressure Calibration Corrections 1029

9 XX Contents 24.5 Free-Field Microphone Calibration Comparison Methods for Microphone Calibration Frequency Response Measurement with Electrostatic Actuators Overall View an Microphone Calibration A Acoustic Transfer Impedance Evaluation B Physical Properties of Air 1045 References Sound Intensity Finn Jacobsen Conservation of Sound Energy Active and Reactive Sound Fields Measurement of Sound Intensity Applications of Sound Intensity 1068 References Acoustic Holography Yang-Hann Kim The Methodology of Acoustic Source Identification Acoustic Holography: Measurement, Prediction and Analysis Summary A Mathematical Derivations of Three Acoustic Holography Methods and Their Discrete Forms 1092 References Optical Methods for Acoustics and Vibration Measurements Nils-Erik Molin Introduction Measurement Principles and Some Applications Summary 1122 References Modal Analysis Thomas D. Rossing Modes of Vibration Experimental Modal Testing Mathematical Modal Analysis Sound-Field Analysis Holographic Modal Analysis 1137 References 1138 Acknowledgements 1139 About the Authors 1141 Detailed Contents 1147 Subject Index 1167