Investigation of Colt fire safety system

Transcription

1 Lars Jensen Avdelningen för installationsteknik Institutionen för bygg- och miljöteknologi Lunds tekniska högskola Lunds universitet, 2017 Rapport TVIT-17/7110

2 Lunds Universitet Lunds Universitet, med åtta fakulteter samt ett antal forskningscentra och specialhögskolor, är Skandinaviens största enhet för forskning och högre utbildning. Huvuddelen av universitetet ligger i Lund, som har invånare. En del forsknings- och utbildningsinstitutioner är dock belägna i Malmö, Helsingborg och Ljungbyhed. Lunds Universitet grundades 1666 och har idag totalt anställda och studerande som deltar i ett 280 utbildningsprogram och ca fristående kurser. Avdelningen för installationsteknik Avdelningen för Installationsteknik tillhör institutionen för Bygg- och miljöteknologi på Lunds Tekniska Högskola, som utgör den tekniska fakulteten vid Lunds Universitet. Installationsteknik omfattar installationernas funktion vid påverkan av människor, verksamhet, byggnad och klimat. Forskningen har en systemanalytisk och metodutvecklande inriktning med syfte att utforma energieffektiva och funktionssäkra installationssystem och byggnader som ger bra inneklimat. Nuvarande forskning innefattar bl a utveckling av metoder för utveckling av beräkningsmetoder för godtyckliga flödessystem, konvertering av direktelvärmda hus till alternativa värmesystem, vädring och ventilation i skolor, system för brandsäkerhet, alternativa sätt att förhindra rökspridning vid brand, installationernas belastning på yttre miljön, att betrakta byggnad och installationer som ett byggnadstekniskt system, analysera och beräkna inneklimatet i olika typer av byggnader, effekter av brukarnas beteende för energianvändning, reglering av golvvärmesystem, bestämning av luftflöden i byggnader med hjälp av spårgasmetod. Vi utvecklar även användbara projekteringsverktyg för energi och inomhusklimat, system för individuell energimätning i flerbostadshus samt olika analysverktyg för optimering av ventilationsanläggningar hos industrin.

3 Lars Jensen

4 Lars Jensen ISRN LUTVDG/TVIT--17/7110--SE(36) Avdelningen för installationsteknik Institutionen för bygg- och miljöteknologi Lunds tekniska högskola Lunds universitet Box LUND

5 Contents 1 Introduction 5 2 Basic model 7 Lobby pressure 7 Apartment door pressure difference 8 Wind velocity limit 8 Stack effect limit 9 Stairwell flow limit 9 Stairwell to lobby pressure difference limit 9 Effective leakage area for the rest of the building 10 Reduced model to fire floor only 10 3 Reduced model results 11 4 Full model results 15 5 Passive performance 25 6 Active performance 29 7 Comparisons and conclusions 33 8 Related work by the author 35 3

6 4 Investigation of Colt fire safety system

7 1 Introduction The aim with this report is to make a basic investigation of the Colt fire safety system. The main effort is put on door opening forces that guarantees egress. The door pressure differences are influenced by the Colt system, the wind effect and the stack effect due to different temperatures inside and outside the building. The Colt system is used to protect stairwell and elevator systems in high-rise buildings and has three basic function features. Each floor in the building has a lobby that is connected to all apartments, stairwells and elevators. The Colt system layout is shown for a nine storey building in Figure 1.1 with a common lobby on each storey and three different doors sdoor for stairwell, edoor for elevators and adoor for apartments When a fire occurs on a certain floor an extract fan system xfan is connected with an extract damper to that floor lobby and the stairwell top is connected to the outside with a large damper denoted as AOV. The stairwell is used for supply air to match the extract system. The pressure difference between the stairwell and the lobby is controlled to 50 Pa with the extract fan to protect from smoke spread from the lobby to the stairwell.. s t a i r we l l s y s t em e x t r a c t s y s t em e l e v a t o r s y s t em a p a r t me n t s AOV x f a n s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t s d o o r l o b b y l o b b y x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t Figure 1.1 Layout for Colt system in a nine storey building.. 5

8 The Colt system has been tested with twenty scenarios denoted as 4-19 with a thirty storey building in a study carried out by WSP and four additional scenarios denoted as as stated in Table 1.1. The indoor and fire temperature are fixed to 22 C respectively 600 C in all scenarios. The outdoor temperature and the wind pressure at the stairwell top are varied as shown below. The scenarios in Table 1.1 can be described as an apartment fire with closed apartment door in scenarios 4-8 and open apartment door 2 m 2 and open facade 10 m 2 in scenario The stairwell door As m 2 on the fire floor is open except closed in scenarios 4-8 and partly open 0.2 m 2 in scenarios to allow space for fire hose. The three elevator doors on each storey has a fixed total effective leakage area Ae m 2. The three elevator shafts are combined into a single elevator shaft. The extract air flow qx m 3 /s is free except for scenarios with fixed flow as shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1 Outdoor temperature, wind pressure, extract air flow and on fire storey effective leakage area for a stairwell door, apartment doors and apartment facades. scenario Tu C pwind Pa qx m 3 /s As m 2 Aa m 2 Af m A basic model is given in section 2 showing what limits the Colt system performance. Both a reduced and a full model will be calculated and shown in section 3 respectively 4. Three fire floor levels bottom, middle and top are tested. A comparison between the reduced and the full model results are made and given in section 7 together with the conclusions. The passive performance with different stairwell top opening area is studied in section 5 with different outdoor temperatures and wind pressure. The active performance is also studied in section 6 with different Colt pressure differences, stairwell door opening areas and fire storey levels together with the same stack effect. 6

9 2 Basic model The activated Colt fire safety system creates a substantial under pressure in a lobby. This lobby pressure Δplobby Pa is limited by the allowable apartment door opening force. The lobby pressure can be calculated in many ways. A simple method is to calculate the pressure change between the building top through the stairwell to the lobby. Lobby pressure The lobby pressure plobby Pa is a sum of wind pressure at building top pwind Pa, stack effect between fire floor and building top Δpstack Pa and stairwell pressure drop Δpstair Pa for a flow q m 3 /s between building top and fire floor. The lobby pressure plobby Pa becomes: plobby = pwind - Δpstack Δpstair (Pa) (2.1) pwind = f ρv 2 /2 (Pa) (2.2) Δpstack = (ρo - ρi)gh = Δρgh (Pa) (2.3) Δpstair = ( Aaov -2 + nastorey -2 + Asdoor -2 ) ρq 2 /2 (Pa) (2.4) The parameter h m in (2.3) is the level difference between the fire floor and building top. The parameter n - in (2.4) is the number of stories between the fire floor and building top. The Colt system pressure difference between stairwell and lobby on fire floor is ΔpC Pa and also equal to the last term in (2.4) for Δpstair Pa. Possible lobby pressures have been calculated with (2.1-3) for scenarios 4-8 in Table 1.1, stairwell flow q 0 m 3 /s and level differences h 0, 45 and 90 m and are given in Table 2.1 with the stack effect. The calculated lobby pressure in Table 2.1 is below -100 Pa in nine out of fifteen cases. Notice that stairwell pressure loss is not included. Table 2.1 Outdoor temperature, wind pressure, thermal gradient and lobby pressure. scenario To C pwind Pa Δρg Pa/m h = 0 m h = 45 m h = 90 m Δρgh Pa

10 The allowable door pressure difference limits lobby pressure. This limitation also limits the different terms composing the lobby pressure. It is obvious that the worst case is a fire on the bottom storey. The allowable door pressure difference is assumed to be 100 Pa. The simple design rule becomes that the lobby pressure should be equal to 100 Pa. Apartment door pressure difference The fire floor apartment door pressure difference Δpdoor Pa can be calculated with the flow area quotient between facade and apartment door denoted as k = Af / Ad - which gives: Δpdoor = r plobby (Pa) (2.5) r = k 2 / ( 1 + k 2 ) (-) (2.6) The apartment door pressure difference Δpdoor is very close to the lobby pressure plobby because the apartment door effective leakage area is far smaller than the façade effective leakage area. The area quotients k 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 gives door pressure difference versus lobby pressure quotients r according to (2.6) equal to 0.5, 0.8, 0.9, 0.94 respectively A simple and good design rule is to set the lobby pressure equal to the maximum allowable door pressure difference which can be close below 100 Pa. Wind velocity limit The wind pressure pwind is a function of the free wind dynamic pressure ρv 2 /2 times a shape factor f depending the surface location versus the wind direction. The shape factor f is mostly between -1.0 and 1.0 but can be far below -1.0 on roofs to high-rise buildings. The wind pressure used here have been calculated for a wind speed of 10 m/s and shape factors -0.7 and The free wind dynamic pressure is 60 Pa for air temperature 20 C. The resulting wind pressure should not exceed 100 Pa. The allowable wind velocity vmax m/s can be calculated as: vmax = ( 200 / fρ) 0.5 (m/s) (2.7) The shape factor f is mostly between -1.0 and 1.0 but can be far below -1.0 on roofs to highrise buildings and as low as An air density of 1.25 kg/m 3 and a shape factor of -2 limits the wind velocity to 9 m/s. 8

11 Stack effect limit The stack effect should not either exceed the 100 Pa limit. The thermal gradient Δρg Pa/m for a given building with the height h m is limited according to: Δρg = 100/h (Pa/m) (2.8) The height h m is limited to 204, 102, 68 and 51 m for outdoor air temperatures 8.3, -2.5, and C corresponding to air density differences 0.05, 0.10, 0.15 and 0.20 kg/m 3. The outdoor density ρo kg/m 3 and outdoor temperature To C is in turn also limited and can be calculated as: ρo = ρi + Δρ = ρi + 100/gh (kg/m 3 ) (2.9) To = / ρo ( C) (2.10) Stairwell flow limit A compact closed staircase with double return can be described as a rectangular duct with two 180 sharp bends, four 37 sharp bends for 3:4 staircase slope and two narrower passages between sloping staircases compared with horizontal surfaces. One storey pressure loss can be set equal to an effective leakage area Astorey of 2 m 2 for a normal sized stairwell with a width 1.2 m and a height 2.5 m. The total leakage area for a several storey stairwell with openings included as shown (2.4) denoted as Astair m 2 becomes equal to m 2 or more useful Astair -2 = 10 m -4 for n = 32 stories with Astorey 2 m 2 and effective opening areas Aaov = Asdoor = 1 m 2. Using a part of (2.4) gives Astair -2 = = 10 m -4. The total stairwell flow pressure loss becomes Δpstair = 6 q 2 Pa with air density 1.2 kg/m 3. The pressure drop for flows 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 m 3 /s becomes 6, 24, 54, 96 respectively 150 Pa. The numbers shows that a modest stairwell flow can cause a lobby pressure below -100 Pa. The stairwell pressure drop is substantial and can be about 1 Pa/m for a flow of 4 m 3 /s. Stairwell to lobby pressure difference limit The Colt system pressure difference is set to 50 Pa. This pressure difference has at least to match the smoke layer stack effect. A pressure difference of 50 Pa over an opening will create a flow velocity of 9 m/s. Sometimes a certain air velocity in an opening is claimed to prevent smoke spread. The velocity effect is modest compared with the smoke layer stack effect. Air velocities of 2, 3, 4 and 5 m/s corresponds to at forcing pressure difference of 2.4, 5.5, 9.6 respectively 15.0 Pa. 9

12 The stack effect gradient is 6, 8 and 9 Pa/m for smoke layer temperatures 313, 606 respectively 889 C versus a surrounding temperature 20 C. A smoke layer covering 1 m of a stairwell door opening is blocked with a pressure difference of 6, 8 respectively 9 Pa. A pressure difference of 20 Pa seems to be sufficient to block a door opening with a smoke layer down to the floor. Effective leakage area for the rest of the building The model in Figure 1.1 is simplified by assuming airtight stairwell doors, airtight extract dampers and pressure loss free elevator shafts and that the rest of the building or all none fire floors can be replaced with a single flow resistance between the fire floor lobby and outside. That turns out to be close to a single flow resistance for three elevator doors for a single storey as shown below. The stack effect is neglected. The elevator doors, the apartment doors and facades can be described as effective flow leakage areas denoted Ae, Aa and Af m 2. The effective flow area for a single floor between the elevator shaft and outside A m 2 can be calculated as follows: A -2 = Ae -2 + Aa -2 + Af -2 (m -4 ) (2.11) The effective flow area between the fire floor lobby and the other floors to the outside Ab can be calculated for an n storey building as follows: Ab -2 = Ae -2 + (n-1) -2 A -2 (m -4 ) (2.12) The second term in (2.12) can be omitted because A is larger than Ae according to (2.11) and (n-1)a is far larger than Ae. This gives the simplification that the effective flow area between the fire floor lobby and through the rest of the building to the outside Ab is just equal to the fire floor elevator door effective flow area Ae m 2. Reduced model to fire floor only The model in Figure 1.1 can be reduced to the fire floor and its connection through all other floors according to ( ) as shown in Figure 2.1. Flow paths with an airtight closed stairwell door and an airtight extract damper are removed.. AOV s d o o r x f a n x d amp e r e d o o r l o b b y a d o o r a p a r t me n t. Figure 2.1 Reduced model for the activated Colt system in Figure

13 3 Reduced model results The reduced model in Figure 2.1 has been calculated for all twenty scenarios 4-23 stated in Table 1.1 and for three different fire floor levels equal to bottom, middle and top of the building or 0, 45 and 90 m corresponding to stories 2, 16 and 30. Storey 1 is only an entrance. The PFS program results are shown in Figure with result printouts tabled in two blocks for scenarios 4-13 (PFS steps 1-10) respectively scenarios (PFS steps 11-20). The reduced model is the begin-end-block below the tabled printouts in Figure The PFS program sign convention for flows and pressure differences is positive from left to right and downwards. The nine inputs are stated as pro(1-9). Free values are denoted as fpv for a free parameter value. The eight results are stated as res(1-8) and are as follows below: lobby pressure, Pa extract air flow, m 3 /s stairwell air flow, m 3 /s stairwell air flow temperature, C stairwell door pressure, Pa apartment door pressure, Pa fire floor flow, m 3 /s rest of building flow, m 3 /s The apartment door pressure difference is larger than 100 Pa in 14, 11 and 8 cases out of 20 cases for levels 0, 45 respectively 90 m. The stairwell inflow is negative and an undesired outflow with high temperatures in 7, 7 and 5 cases out of 20 cases for levels 0, 45 respectively 90 m. The cause to this malfunction is that the extract air flow is limited to 10, 10, 10, 10, 20, 30 and 40 m 3 /s (PFS-steps 14-20). 11

14 c om s i mp l e BRE x s 9 0 t a b l e s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) w p P a p r o ( 6 ) T b C p r o ( 7 ) A t l m p r o ( 8 ) A l a m p r o ( 9 ) A a o m r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) m3 / s r e s ( 4 ) C r e s ( 5 ) P a r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) m3 / s s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) w p P a p r o ( 6 ) T b C p r o ( 7 ) A t l m p r o ( 8 ) A l a m p r o ( 9 ) A a o m r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) m3 / s r e s ( 4 ) C r e s ( 5 ) P a r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) m3 / s b e g i n c o n t r o l d e n z = d z d e n c a s e = 1 t r i x = 1 s e t o p = t, T n = T, 2 2 : < T p = T, 2 2 : > T p " e x t r a c t s y s t em " T p " s t a i r w e l l " h? : qw h, w p : q Tw P a m3 / s m3 / s C 4 q, q C h, p C q, 0 t, 9 0, P a o p, A t l : hw : T z, P a C o p, A l a : hw : T o p, A a o T, T b : < qw " f i r e f l o o r " P a C m3 / s 7 o p, T p z, 4 5 T n : qw " o t h e r f l o o r s " m3 / s 8 e n d " 9 0 " Figure 3.1 Results for simplified model at level 00 m for scenarios

15 c om s i mp l e BRE x s 4 5 t a b l e s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) w p P a p r o ( 6 ) T b C p r o ( 7 ) A t l m p r o ( 8 ) A l a m p r o ( 9 ) A a o m r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) m3 / s r e s ( 4 ) C r e s ( 5 ) P a r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) m3 / s s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) w p P a p r o ( 6 ) T b C p r o ( 7 ) A t l m p r o ( 8 ) A l a m p r o ( 9 ) A a o m r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) m3 / s r e s ( 4 ) C r e s ( 5 ) P a r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) m3 / s b e g i n c o n t r o l d e n z = d z d e n c a s e = 1 t r i x = 1 s e t o p = t, T n = T, 2 2 : < T p = T, 2 2 : > T p " e x t r a c t s y s t em " T p " s t a i r w e l l " h? : qw h, w p : q Tw P a m3 / s m3 / s C 4 q, q C h, p C q, 0 t, 4 5, P a o p, A t l : hw : T z, P a C o p, A l a : hw : T o p, A a o T, T b : < qw " f i r e f l o o r " P a C m3 / s 7 o p, T p z, 0 0 T n : qw " o t h e r f l o o r s " m3 / s 8 e n d " 9 0 " Figure 3.2 Results for simplified model at level 45 m for scenarios

16 c om s i mp l e BRE x s 0 0 t a b l e s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) w p P a p r o ( 6 ) T b C p r o ( 7 ) A t l m p r o ( 8 ) A l a m p r o ( 9 ) A a o m r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) m3 / s r e s ( 4 ) C r e s ( 5 ) P a r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) m3 / s s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) w p P a p r o ( 6 ) T b C p r o ( 7 ) A t l m p r o ( 8 ) A l a m p r o ( 9 ) A a o m r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) m3 / s r e s ( 4 ) C r e s ( 5 ) P a r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) m3 / s b e g i n c o n t r o l d e n z = d z d e n c a s e = 1 t r i x = 1 s e t o p = t, T n = T, 2 2 : < T p = T, 2 2 : > T p " e x t r a c t s y s t em " T p " s t a i r w e l l " h? : qw h, w p : q Tw P a m3 / s m3 / s C 4 q, q C h, p C q, 0 t, 0 0, P a o p, A t l : hw : T z, P a C o p, A l a : hw : T o p, A a o T, T b : < qw " f i r e f l o o r " P a C m3 / s 7 o p, T p z, T n : qw " o t h e r f l o o r s " m3 / s 8 e n d " 9 0 " Figure 3.3 Results for simplified model at level 90 m for scenarios

17 4 Full model results The full model in Figure 1.1 has been calculated for all twenty scenarios 4-23 stated in Table 1.1 and for three different fire floor levels equal to bottom, middle and top of the building or 0, 45 and 90 m in section 3 corresponding to stories 2, 16 and 30. Storey 1 is only an entrance. The PFS program results are shown in Figure with a PFS begin-end-block splitted into two parts followed by result printouts tabled in two blocks for scenarios for scenarios 4-13 (PFS 1-10) respectively scenarios (PFS 11-20). The PFS program sign convention for flows and pressure differences is positive from left to right and downwards. The eight inputs are stated as pro(1-8). ). Free values are denoted as fpv for a free parameter value. The eight results are stated as res(1-8) and are as follows below: lobby pressure, Pa extract air flow, m 3 /s stairwell door pressure, Pa stairwell top air flow, m 3 /s stairwell top air flow temperature, C stairwell door pressure, Pa rest of building flow, m 3 /s apartment door pressure, Pa The apartment door pressure difference is larger than 100 Pa in 13, 10 and 8 cases out of 20 cases for stories 2, 16 and 30. The stairwell inflow is negative and an undesired outflow with high temperatures in 13, 12 and 11 cases out of 20 cases for levels 0, 45 respectively 90 m. The cause to this malfunction is that the extract air flow is limited to 10, 10, 10, 10, 20, 30 and 40 m 3 /s (PFS-steps 14-20). 15

18 c om f u l l BRE x f 2 b e g i n c o n t r o l d e n = d e n z = d z d e n c a s e = 1 r s a e e = t r i x = 1 t a b l e = 1 2 s e t o p = t, " o p, A s t r y p n i n g f ö r a r e a A m2 me d k o n t r a k t i o n 0. 6 " s e t d e p = o p, : h " e n t r e p l a n d ö r r " s e t d t l = o p, : h " t r a p p h u s d ö r r " s e t d h l = o p, : h " t r e h i s s d ö r r a r " s e t d l a = o p, : h " t o l v l ä g e n h e t s d ö r r a r " s e t a o = o p, " t o l v l ä g e n h e t s f a s a d e r " s e t p t = t, 3. 0, 3. 0 " t r a p p h u s t r y c k f a l l p e r p l a n " s e t p h = t, , 2 0 " h i s s s c h a k t t r y c k f a l l p e r p l a n " s e t z p = z, - 3 " n i v å s k i l l n a d p e r p l a n " s e t T n = T, 2 2 : q < " t emp e r a t u r i n f l ö d e n < 0 " s e t T p = T, 2 2 " t emp e r a t u r i n f l ö d e n > 0 " s e t T f = T, : < " b r a n d t emp e r a t u r " s e t s p = s, s n = s, " f a s a d s t a r t f l ö d e " s e t d t l f = o p, A t l : h w " t r a p p h u s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t d h l f = o p, : q w " t r a p p h u s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t d l a f = o p, A l a : h w " l ä g e n h e t s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t a o f = o p, A a o " l ä g e n h e t s f a s a d b r a n d p l a n " c om t r y c k s k i l l n a d s k r a v b r a n d g a s f l ä k t h, p C q, h? : w q, q C T n : w : T P a P a m3 / s 2 c om C 2 1 h? : w q, P a 3 c om t r a p p h u s l o b b y h i s s a r l o b b y l ä g e n h e t e r c om d ö r r d ö r r d ö r r T p h, p w : q T w m3 / s C 5 o p, s, d t l d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s Figure 4.1 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey 2. 16

19 z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 0. 1 P a 2. 4 P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 0. 4 P a 5. 6 P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 0. 7 P a 8. 8 P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 1. 0 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 1. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 1. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 2. 0 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 2. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 2. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 3. 0 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 3. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 3. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 4. 0 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 4. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 4. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 5. 0 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 5. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 5. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l f z p d h l f d l a f a o f s n T f p t P a 6 p h m3 / s P a 8 z p d t l z p d h l d e p s n T n P a P a P a m3 / s c om e n d Figure 4.2 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey 2. 17

20 t a b l e s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) pw P a p r o ( 6 ) A t l m p r o ( 7 ) A l a m p r o ( 8 ) A a o m s t e p n umb e r e r r o r s o b s e r v a t i o n s r ms e e P a me a n a b s e e P a ma x a b s e e P a s t e p n umb e r r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) P a r e s ( 4 ) m3 / s r e s ( 5 ) C r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) P a s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) pw P a p r o ( 6 ) A t l m p r o ( 7 ) A l a m p r o ( 8 ) A a o m s t e p n umb e r e r r o r s o b s e r v a t i o n s r ms e e P a me a n a b s e e P a ma x a b s e e P a s t e p n umb e r r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) P a r e s ( 4 ) m3 / s r e s ( 5 ) C r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) P a Figure 4.3 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey 2. 18

21 c om f u l l BRE x f 1 6 b e g i n c o n t r o l d e n = d e n z = d z d e n c a s e = 1 r s a e e = t r i x = 1 t a b l e = 1 2 s e t o p = t, " o p, A s t r y p n i n g f ö r a r e a A m2 me d k o n t r a k t i o n 0. 6 " s e t d e p = o p, : h " e n t r e p l a n d ö r r " s e t d t l = o p, : h " t r a p p h u s d ö r r " s e t d h l = o p, : h " t r e h i s s d ö r r a r " s e t d l a = o p, : h " t o l v l ä g e n h e t s d ö r r a r " s e t a o = o p, " t o l v l ä g e n h e t s f a s a d e r " s e t p t = t, 3. 0, 3. 0 " t r a p p h u s t r y c k f a l l p e r p l a n " s e t p h = t, , 2 0 " h i s s s c h a k t t r y c k f a l l p e r p l a n " s e t z p = z, - 3 " n i v å s k i l l n a d p e r p l a n " s e t T n = T, 2 2 : q < " t emp e r a t u r i n f l ö d e n < 0 " s e t T p = T, 2 2 " t emp e r a t u r i n f l ö d e n > 0 " s e t T f = T, : < " b r a n d t emp e r a t u r " s e t s p = s, 0. 0 s n = s, " f a s a d s t a r t f l ö d e " s e t d t l f = o p, A t l : h w " t r a p p h u s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t d h l f = o p, : q w " t r a p p h u s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t d l a f = o p, A l a : h w " l ä g e n h e t s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t a o f = o p, A a o " l ä g e n h e t s f a s a d b r a n d p l a n " c om t r y c k s k i l l n a d s k r a v b r a n d g a s f l ä k t h, p C q, h? : w q, q C s, 1 0 T n : w : T P a P a m3 / s 2 c om C h? : w q, P a 3 c om t r a p p h u s l o b b y h i s s a r l o b b y l ä g e n h e t e r c om d ö r r d ö r r d ö r r T p h, p w : q T w m3 / s C 5 o p, s, d t l d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s Figure 4.4 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey

22 z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 0. 1 P a 2. 2 P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 0. 4 P a 5. 4 P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h 0. 7 P a 8. 5 P a m3 / s z p d t l f z p d h l f d l a f a o f s p T f p t P a 6 p h m3 / s P a 8 z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 1. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 1. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 2. 0 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 2. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 2. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 3. 1 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 3. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 3. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 4. 1 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 4. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 4. 7 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 5. 1 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 5. 4 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s n T n p t P a p h 5. 8 P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d e p s n T n P a P a P a m3 / s c om e n d Figure 4.5 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey

23 t a b l e s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) p w P a p r o ( 6 ) A t l m p r o ( 7 ) A l a m p r o ( 8 ) A a o m s t e p n umb e r e r r o r s o b s e r v a t i o n s r ms e e P a me a n a b s e e P a ma x a b s e e P a s t e p n umb e r r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) P a r e s ( 4 ) m3 / s r e s ( 5 ) C r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) P a s t e p n umb e r p r o ( 1 ) s o n p r o ( 2 ) p C P a f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 3 ) q C m3 / s f p v f p v f p v p r o ( 4 ) d z k g / m p r o ( 5 ) p w P a p r o ( 6 ) A t l m p r o ( 7 ) A l a m p r o ( 8 ) A a o m s t e p n umb e r e r r o r s o b s e r v a t i o n s r ms e e P a me a n a b s e e P a ma x a b s e e P a s t e p n umb e r r e s ( 1 ) P a r e s ( 2 ) m3 / s r e s ( 3 ) P a r e s ( 4 ) m3 / s r e s ( 5 ) C r e s ( 6 ) P a r e s ( 7 ) m3 / s r e s ( 8 ) P a Figure 4.6 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey

24 c om f u l l BRE x f 3 0 b e g i n c o n t r o l d e n = d e n z = d z d e n c a s e = 1 r s a e e = t r i x = 1 t a b l e = 1 2 s e t o p = t, " o p, A s t r y p n i n g f ö r a r e a A m2 me d k o n t r a k t i o n 0. 6 " s e t d e p = o p, : h " e n t r e p l a n d ö r r " s e t d t l = o p, : h " t r a p p h u s d ö r r " s e t d h l = o p, : h " t r e h i s s d ö r r a r " s e t d l a = o p, : h " t o l v l ä g e n h e t s d ö r r a r " s e t a o = o p, " t o l v l ä g e n h e t s f a s a d e r " s e t p t = t, 3. 0, 3. 0 " t r a p p h u s t r y c k f a l l p e r p l a n " s e t p h = t, , 2 0 " h i s s s c h a k t t r y c k f a l l p e r p l a n " s e t z p = z, - 3 " n i v å s k i l l n a d p e r p l a n " s e t T n = T, 2 2 : q < " t emp e r a t u r i n f l ö d e n < 0 " s e t T p = T, 2 2 " t emp e r a t u r i n f l ö d e n > 0 " s e t T f = T, : < " b r a n d t emp e r a t u r " s e t s p = s, s n = s, " f a s a d s t a r t f l ö d e " s e t d t l f = o p, A t l : h w " t r a p p h u s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t d h l f = o p, : q w " t r a p p h u s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t d l a f = o p, A l a : h w " l ä g e n h e t s d ö r r b r a n d p l a n " s e t a o f = o p, A a o " l ä g e n h e t s f a s a d b r a n d p l a n " c om t r y c k s k i l l n a d s k r a v b r a n d g a s f l ä k t h, p C q, h? : w q, q C s, 5 T n : w : T P a P a m3 / s 2 c om C h? : w q, P a 3 c om t r a p p h u s l o b b y h i s s a r l o b b y l ä g e n h e t e r c om d ö r r d ö r r d ö r r T p h, p w : q T w m3 / s C 5 o p, s, d t l f d h l f d l a f a o f s p T f p t P a 6 p h m3 / s P a 8 z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s z p d t l z p d h l d l a a o s p T n p t P a p h P a P a m3 / s Figure 4.7 Results for full model for scenarios 4-23 with fire on storey