Marcelo Alonso. Edward J. Finn. Georgetown University. Prentice Hall

Transcription

1 PHYSICS Marcelo Alonso Florida Institute of Technology Edward J. Finn Georgetown University PEARSON Prentice Hall Harlow, England " London " New York " Boston " San Francisco -Toronto Sydney " Tokyo " Singapore " Hong Kong " Seoul " Taipei " New Delhi Cape Town " Madrid " Mexico City " Amsterdam " Munich " Paris " Milan

2 Contents Preface v 3.8 Composition of velocities and accelerations 48 Introduction Relative motion 50 What is physics? 1 4 Curvilinear motion 57 The relation of physics to other sciences 2 The experimental method Introduction Curvilinear motion : velocity 58 1 The structure of matter Curvilinear motion : acceleration Introduction Tangential and normal 1.2 Particles 5 acceleration Atoms Curvilinear motion with constant 1.4 Molecules 9 acceleration Matter in bulk Relative translational motion : the Galilean transformation Living systems Interactions 16 5 Circular motion 77 2 Measurement and units Introduction Introduction Circular motion : angular velocity Measurement Circular motion : angular 2.3 Fundamental quantities 20 acceleration Fundamental units Vector relations in circular motion Derived units and dimensions Relative rotational motion Motion relative to the Earth 87 3 Rectilinear motion Mechanics 29 6 Force and momentum Frames of reference Introduction Rectilinear motion : velocity The law of inertia Rectilinear motion : acceleration Mass Some special motions Linear momentum Free vertical motion under the 6.5 Principle of conservation of action of gravity 44 momentum Vector representation ofvelocity 6.6 Newton's second and third laws 106 and acceleration in rectilinear 6.7 Relationship between force and motion 47 acceleration 108

3 viii Contents 6.8 Units of force Basic equation of simple 6.9 Classical principle of relativity 112 harmonic motion The simple pendulum Applications of the laws of 10.7 Superposition of two SHMs in motion 120 the same direction and frequency Introduction Superposition of two SHMs with the same direction but different 7.2 Motion under a constant force 120 frequency Resultant force Equilibrium of a particle Superposition of two SHMs in perpendicular directions Frictional forces Frictional forces in fluids Coupled oscillators Systems with variable mass Molecular vibrations Torque and angular momentum Anharmonic oscillations Damped oscillations Forced oscillations Introduction Curvilinear motion Gravitational interaction Torque Angular momentum Introduction Central forces The law of gravitation Newton's derivation of the law 9 Work and energy 157 of force Inertial and gravitational mass Introduction Gravitational potential energy Work Relation between energy and 9.3 Power 161 orbital motion Units of work and power Gravitational field Kinetic energy Gravitational potential Units of energy Gravitational field of a spherical 9.7 Work of a constant force 168 body Potential energy The principle of equivalence Relation between force and Gravitation and molecular forces 277 potential energy Conservation of energy of a 12 Space exploration 286 particle Introduction Discussion of potential energy curves 12.2 Earth satellites Voyage to the Moon 292 Non-conservative forces and energy 12.4 Exploration of the solar system 294 dissipation Systems of particles I : Linear and 10 Oscillatory motion 190 angular momentum Introduction Introduction Kinematics of simple harmonic 13.2 Motion of the center of mass of motion 191 an isolated system of particles Rotating vectors or phasors Motion of the center of mass of 10.4 Force and energy in simple a system of particles subject to harmonic motion 194 external forces 307

4 Contents ix 13.4 Reduced mass Many particle systems : energy 13.5 Angular momentum of a system balance 406 of particles Special processes Internal and orbital angular 16.7 Heat capacity 412 momentum Reversible and irreversible 13.7 Angular momentum of a rigid processes 416 body Entropy and heat Equation of motion for rotation Efficiency of a thermal engine of a rigid body 328 operating in a Carnot cycle Oscillatory motion ofa rigid body The law of entropy Gyroscopic motion Equilibrium of a body Statistical mechanics Systems of particles 11 : Energy Introduction Statistical equilibrium Introduction Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution 14.2 Kinetic energy of a system of law 436 particles Statistical definition of 14.3 Conservation of energy of a temperature 441 system of particles Energy and velocity distribution 14.4 Total energy of a system of of the molecules in an ideal gas 446 particles subject to external forces Experimental verification of the 14.5 Internal energy of a system of Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution particles 353 law Kinetic energy of rotation of a 17.7 Thermal equilibrium 450 rigid body Entropy Rotational energy of molecules Law of increase of entropy Binding energy of a system of particles Transport phenomena Collisions Introduction Fluid motion Molecular diffusion : Fick's law Gases Steady diffusion Thermal conduction : Fourier's 15.1 Introduction 378 law Temperature Steady thermal conduction The ideal gas temperature Viscosity Temperature and molecular 18.7 Mean free path and collision energy 384 frequency Internal energy of an ideal gas Molecular theory of transport 15.6 Real gases 390 phenomena Polyatomic gases The principle of relativity Thermodynamics Introduction Introduction The velocity of light Internal energy and work The Lorentz transformation Many particle systems : work Lorentz transformation of 16.4 Many particle systems : heat 405 velocities and accelerations 490

5 x Contents 19.5 Consequences of the Lorentz 23 Electric structure of matter 592 transformation Special principle of relativity Introduction Momentum Electrolysis Force The nuclear model of the atom Bohr's theory of the atom Energy The general theory of relativity 505 momentum High energy processes Effect of a magnetic field on electronic motion Introduction Electron spin Energy and momentum Spin-orbit interaction Systems of particles Electron shells in atoms High energy collisions Electrons in solids Particle decay Conductors, semiconductors and insulators Electric interaction Introduction Electric currents Electric charge Coulomb's law Introduction Units of charge 543 part A : Electric currents and electric fields Electric field Electric current Electric field of a point charge Ohm's law The quantization of electric 24.4 Conductivity 628 charge Electric power Principle of conservation of 24.6 Combination of resistors 634 charge Direct current circuits Electric potential Methods for calculating currents Relation between electric in an electric network 638 potential and electric field 556 Part B : Electric currents and magnetic fields Electric potential ofa point charge Magnetic force on an electric Energy relations in an electric current 641 field Magnetic torque on an electric 22 Magnetic interaction 569 current Magnetic field produced by a 22.1 Introduction 569 current Magnetic force on a moving Magnetic field of a rectilinear charge 570 current Motion of a charged particle in Magnetic field of a circular a uniform magnetic field 572 current Motion of a charged particle in a Forces between electric currents 653 non-uniform magnetic field Examples of motion of charged 25 The electric field 661 particles in a magnetic field Magnetic field of a moving 25.1 Introduction 661 charge Electromotive force Magnetic dipoles Flux of the electric field 662

6 Contents xi 25.4 Gauss' law for the electric Energy of the electromagnetic field 664 field Properties of a conductor Coupled circuits 741 placed in an electric field Electric polarization of matter The polarization vector Wave motion Electric displacement Introduction Electric susceptibility and 28.2 Waves 748 permittivity Description of wave motion Electric capacitance : capacitors The general equation of wave Energy of the electric field 685 motion Elastic waves Pressure waves in a gas The magnetic field Transverse waves on a string Introduction Transverse elastic waves in a rod Ampere's law for the magnetic 28.9 Surface waves in a liquid 764 field What propagates in wave motion? Magnetic flux Waves in two and three 26.4 Magnetization of matter 697 dimensions The magnetization vector Spherical waves in a fluid The magnetizing field Group velocity Magnetic susceptibility and The Doppler effect 775 permeability Energy of the magnetic field Electromagnetic waves Summary of the laws for static 29.1 Introduction 782 fields Plane electromagnetic waves Energy and momentum of an 27 The electromagnetic field 714 electromagnetic wave Radiation from oscillatingdipoles Introduction Radiation from an accelerated Part A: The laws of the electromagnetic field 715 charge The Faraday-Henry law Propagation of electromagnetic 27.3 Electromagnetic induction due waves in matter; dispersion 797 to the relative motion of a 29.7 The Doppler effect in conductor and a magnetic field 720 electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic induction and 29.8 The spectrum ofelectromagnetic the principle of relativity 722 radiation The principle of conservation of electric charge Interaction of electromagnetic radiation 27.6 The Ampere-Maxwell law 724 with matter : photons Maxwell's equations Introduction 808 Part B : Application to electric circuits Emission of radiation by atoms, 27.8 Self-induction 728 molecules and nuclei Free electrical oscillations Absorption of electromagnetic Forced electrical oscillations : radiation by atoms, molecules alternating current circuits 734 and nuclei 810

7 xi i Contents 30.4 Scattering of electromagnetic 33.7 Dispersion 898 waves by bound electrons Chromatic aberration Scattering of electromagnetic radiation by a free electron : the 34 Interference 908 Compton effect Introduction Photons Interference of waves produced 30.7 More about photons : the by two synchronous sources 909 photoelectric effect in metals Radiative transitions Interference from several synchronous sources Standing waves in one dimension Introduction Standing electromagnetic waves Stationary states Standing waves in two dimensions Interaction of radiation with 34.7 Standing waves in three matter 829 dimensions ; resonant cavities Atomic spectra Waveguides Molecular spectra Radiative transitions in solids Diffraction Spontaneous and stimulated radiative transitions Introduction Masers and lasers Huygens' principle Blackbody radiation Fraunhofer diffraction by a rectangular slit Reflection, refraction and polarization Fraunhofer diffraction by a circular aperture Introduction Fraunhofer diffraction by two 32.2 Rays and wave surfaces 857 equal parallel slits Reflection and refraction of plane 35.6 Diffraction gratings 945 waves X-ray scattering by crystals Reflection and refraction of spherical waves Quantum mechanics : fundamentals Reflection and transmission of 36.1 Introduction 955 transverse waves on a string Particles and fields Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves Scattering of particles by 32.7 Propagation crystals 957 of electromagnetic waves in an anisotropic medium Particles and wave packets Reflection and refraction at Heisenberg's uncertainty metallic surfaces 872 principle for position and momentum Wave geometry Illustrations of Heisenberg's principle Introduction The uncertainty relation for time 33.2 Reflection at a spherical surface 876 and energy Refraction at a spherical surface Stationary states and the matter 33.4 Lenses 885 field Optical instruments Wave function and probability 33.6 The prism 897 density 971

8 Contents xiii 37 Quantum mechanics : applications The ultimate structure of matter Introduction Introduction Schrodinger's equation The `fundamental' particles Free particle Particles and antiparticles Potential wall Particle instability Potential box The conservation laws Potential well Symmetry and interactions Particles in a general potential Resonances The simple harmonic oscillator The standard model Potential barrier penetration The evolution of the universe Atoms, molecules and solids 999 Notes 38.1 Introduction Historical basis for the 38.2 Angular wavefunction under a fundamental units 23 central force Space, time and matter Atoms with one electron The age of the universe Atoms with two electrons Radial and transverse velocity in 38.5 Atoms with many electrons 1009 plane curvilinear motion Diatomic molecules The forces we know Linear molecules Scattering of a particle by a 38.8 The geometry of molecules 1017 central repulsive inverse square 38.9 Structure of solids 1020 force Electrons in metals Relation between force, torque and potential energy in plane 39 Nuclear structure 1027 curvilinear motion Energy in plane curvilinear 39.1 Introduction 1027 motion The nucleus Impedance of an oscillator Properties of the nucleus Fourier analysis of periodic 39.4 Nuclear binding energy 1030 motion Nuclear forces Representation of oscillatory 39.6 The deuteron 1034 motion in phase space Neutron-proton scattering Non-linear oscillations and The shell model 1036 dynamical chaos 39.9 Nuclear radiative transitions General motion under gravitational attraction Nuclear processes Gravitational energy of a spherical body Introduction Critical density of the universe Radioactive decay, Gravitation and the large-scale 40.3 a-decay 1045 structure of the universe /1-decay Gravitation and dynamical 40.5 Nuclear reactions 1052 chaos Nuclear fission Discussion of the interaction 40.7 Fission chain reactions 1056 between two systems of particles Nuclear fusion Precession of a gyroscope 336

9 xiv Contents 14.1 Invariance, symmetry and the 27.1 The betatron 719 conservation laws Application of the method of 17.1 Probability of a partition in rotating vectors to a.c. electric Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics 439 circuits Heat capacity of a crystalline 28.1 Acoustics 778 solid Comparison of electric and 17.3 Statistical analysis of work and magnetic dipole radiation 792 heat Collisions involving a zero mass 17.4 Systems far from equilibrium 458 particle Relation between mean free path Experimental verification of and molecular dimensions Einstein's equation Convective and turbulent 31.1 Tuning of a laser 847 transport Analysis of spontaneous and 19.1 Analysis of the stimulated transitions 851 Michelson-Morley experiment New telescope technologies Relativistic momentum The Hubble Space Telescope 19.3 Estimation ofgeneral relativistic (HST) 902 effects Non-imaging optics Lorentz transformation of 34.1 Hertz's experiment 925 energy and momentum Holography Experimental techniques for 37.1 Energy states in a potential well 987 producing high energy particles Discovery of the neutron Analysis of the Millikan oil-drop 40.2 Nuclear fission reactors 1057 experiment Nuclear fusion reactors Van Allen radiation belts The formation of the elements Justification of relation 41.1 The antiproton experiment 1076 LZ 602 = l(1 + 1)h Parity violations in /3-decay Origin of the spin-orbit 41.3 Experimental evidence of the interaction 607 internal structure of protons Calculation of the electric 41.4 The cosmological fate 1093 conductivity Electric currents in gases 639 Appendices 24.3 Relation between the magnetic A : Vectors 1097 field of a current and the A.1 Concept of direction 1097 magnetic field of a moving A.2 Scalars and vectors 1097 charge 648 A.3 Addition and subtraction of 24.4 Note on electromagnetic units 654 vectors Charge and discharge of a A.4 Components of a vector 1100 capacitor 683 A.5 Addition of several vectors Relation between the electric A.6 The scalar product 1101 field and the energy of the field 687 A.7 The vector product Magnetic confinement of a A.8 Vector representation of an area 1103 plasma 695 A.9 Gradient of a scalar function Magnetization of diamagnetic A.10 The line integral of a vector : and paramagnetic substances 703 Circulation Energy of the magnetic field of A.11 The surface integral of a vector : a slowly moving charge 710 Flux 1105

10 Contents xv B : Mathematical relations 1106 B.7 Average value of a function 1110 B.1 Trigonometric functions 1106 B.8 Conic sections 1111 B.2 Logarithms 1107 B.3 Power expansions 1108 C: Calculation of the moment of inertia 1112 B.4 Plane and solid angles 1109 Answers to selected problems 1114 B.5 Basic derivatives and integrals 1110 B.6 Special integrals 1110 Index 1124