GSA Data Repository Tectonic regime controls clustering of deformation bands in porous sandstone Roger Soliva et al.

Transcription

1 GSA Data Repository Tectonic regime controls clustering of deformation bands in porous sandstone Roger Soliva et al. Item DR1: Outcrop names, references, and number of bands for data in Figures 1 and Normal band sets 1 : Delicate Arch (Antonellini and Aydin, 1995), n = : Bédoin 3 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Moab 3 (Davatzes and Aydin, 2003), n = : Moab 2 (Davatzes and Aydin, 2003), n = : Gebel Samra (Du Bernard et al., 2002), n = : San Rafael 1 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Moab 1 (Fossen et al., 2005), n = : Slickrock (Fossen et al., 2005), n = : San Rafael 2 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : San Rafael 4 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Gebel Hazbar (Du Bernard et al., 2002), n = : Arches Navajo (Antonellini and Aydin, 1994), n = : San Rafael 5 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Moab 8 (Berg and Skar, 2005), n = : San Rafael 3 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Arches Morisson (Antonellini and Aydin, 1994), n = : Wadi Taiba 2 (Beach et al. 1999), n = : Hidden Canyon 6 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Wadi Taiba 1 (Beach et al. 1999), n = : Hidden Canyon 2 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Hidden Canyon 1 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Moab Entrada (Antonellini and Aydin, 1994), n = : Bédoin 1 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Wadi Areba (Du Bernard et al., 2002), n = : Uchaux S1 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Naqb Budra (Du Bernard et al., 2002), n = : Bédoin 2 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Moab 7 (Berg and Skar, 2005), n = : Moray Firth 2 (Edwards et al., 1993), n = : Gebel Heckma (Du Bernard et al., 2002), n = : Moab 4 (Davatzes and Aydin, 2003), n = : Moab 5 (Berg and Skar, 2005), n = : Moab Morisson (Antonellini and Aydin, 1994), n = : Egypt (Schueller et al., 2013), n = : Uchaux N2 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Moray Firth 4 (Edwards et al., 1993), n = : Golf course (Farrel et al., 2014), n = : Moray Firth 3 (Edwards et al., 1993), n = : Moab 6 (Berg and Skar, 2005), n = : Uchaux S2 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Clashach (Farrel et al., 2014), n = 854

2 42 : Valley of Eden (Fowles and Burley, 1994), n = : Moray Firth 1 (Edwards et al., 1993), n = : Hidden Canyon 4 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Uchaux N1 (Saillet and Wibberley, 2010), n = : Hidden Canyon 5 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = : Hidden Canyon 3 (Johansen and Fossen, 2008), n = Reverse band sets 48 : Pismo Medium Grain (this study), n = : Subhercynian 1 (this study), n = : Montmout (this study), n = : Buckskin Gulch (Solum et al., 2010), n = : Subhercynian 3 (this study), n = : Boncavaï (this study), n = : Sablex (this study), n = : Orange (Saillet and wibberley, 2010), n = : Boisfeuillet (this study), n = : Pismo Coarse Sand (this study), n = : Subhercynian 2 (this study), n = : Taiwan 2 (this study), n = : Les Crans 2 (this study), n = : Subhercynian 4 (this study), n = : Bollène (this study), n = : Bagnols (this study), n = : Taiwan 1 (this study), n = : Les Crans 1 (this study), n = : Mornas (this study), n = : Valley of Fire 1 (this study), n = : Roquemaure (this study), n = : Pismo Gravels (this study), n = : Valley of Fire 2 (this study), n = : Muddy Mountains (this study), n = Strike-slip band system 72 : Bédoin 4 (this study), n = : St Michel (this study), n = Additional references for Figures 1 and 2: Antonellini, M., Aydin, A., Effect of faulting on fluid flow in porous sandstones: petrophysical properties, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, no. 78, p Antonellini, M.A., Aydin, A., Effect of faulting on fluid flow in sandstones, geometry and spatial distribution: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, no. 78, p Beach, A., Welbon, A. I., Brockbank, P. J., McCallum, J. E., 1999, Reservoir damage around faults: Outcrop examples from the Suez Rift: Petroleum Geosciences, v. 5, p

3 Berg, S. S., and T. Skar, 2005, Controls on damage zone asymmetry of a normal fault zone: Outcrop analysis of a segment of the Moab fault, SE Utah, Journal of Structural Geology, no. 27, p DuBernard, X., Labaume, P., Darcel, C., Davy, P., Bour, O., Cataclastic slip band distribution in normal fault damage zones, Nubian sandstones, Suez rift, Journal of Geophysical Research, no. 107-B7, p Davatzes, N.C., and Aydin A., Overprinting faulting mechanisms in high porosity sandstones of SE Utah: Journal of Structural Geology, no. 25, p Edwards, E. H., Becker, A. D., Howell, J. A., Compartimentalization of an eolian sandstone by structural heterogeneities: Permo- Triassic Hopeman Sandstone, Moray Firth, Scotland, in Characterization of Fluvial and Aeolian Reservoirs, eds., C. P. North and D. J. Prosser, Geological Society [London], Special Publications 73, p Farell, N.J.C., Healy, D., Taylor, C.W., Anisotropy of permeability in faulted porous sandstones, Journal of Structural Geology, No. 63, p Fossen, H., Johansen, T.E.S., Hesthammer, J., Rotevatn, A., Fault interaction in porous sandstone and implications for reservoir management; examples from southern Utah, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, no. 89, p Fowles, J., Burley, S., Textural and permeability characteristics of faulted, high porosity sandstones, Marine and Petroleum Geology, no. 11, p Johansen, T.E.S., Fossen, H., Internal geometry of fault damage zones in interbedded siliciclastic sediments, in Wibberley, C.A.J., Kurz, W., Imber, J., Holdsworth, R.E. Collettini, C., eds., The internal structure of fault zones: Implications for mechanical and fluid-flow properties, Geological Society [London], Special Publications 299, p Saillet, E., Wibberley, C.A.J., Evolution of cataclastic faulting in high-porosity sandstone, Bassin du Sud-Est, Provence, France: Journal of Structural Geology, no. 32, p Schueller, S., Braathen, A., Fossen, H., Tveranger, J., Spatial distribution of deformation bands in damage zones of extensional faults in porous sandstones: statistical analysis of field data, Journal of Structural Geology, no. 52, p

4 Item DR2: Mechanical explanation 2.1 Porous sandstone mechanical behaviour and stress paths for contraction and extension Mechanical tests in porous sandstones generally show a localized Byerlee-type shear behavior at low to moderate applied mean stresses (relative to P*, the maximum means stress supported by the material), and a more distributed compactional/cataclastic behavior at relatively high mean stresses (yield Cap envelope, e.g. Wong and Baud, 2012; Rutter and Glover, 2013) (see Figure 1 in supplementary material). In geologic conditions, for a given initial lithostatic stress state (burial stress path), tectonic contraction increases first the mean stress in the rock, and later the differential stress. This contractional stress path makes the material more probable to yield in a compactional behavior along the Cap envelope (see the red stress path in Figure 1). In contrast, tectonic extension reduces the mean stress with a synchronous differential stress increase, leading the material to fail in a more frictionalshearing Byerlee-type behaviour (see the blue stress path). Details for the calculation of these stress paths are exposed in Soliva et al., These expected strong differences both in mechanical behavior and stress path give the basic premises to explain the different types of clustering observed between reverse and normal regimes. Mechanical tests generally show brittle fractures or cataclastic SBs formed in Byerlee condition (e.g. Fortin et al, 2005), which generally allow shear localization and stress relaxation limiting significant band creation outside the shear zone (Schultz and Soliva, 2012). In contrast, cataclastic compactional bands (comparable to CSBs, SECBs and PCB observed in the field) form along the yield cap envelope with little or no stress relaxation, keeping the sandstone critically stressed in its volume. This allows subsequent compactional band development and infill into the whole sample. Important differences however rise between mechanical test and nature such as large thickness of SBs clusters observed in the field compared to SBs formed in test. This probably finds explanation in the difference of sample scale and boundary conditions between mechanical test and nature. Figure DR1. Graph of normalized differential stress (q) and mean stress (p) showing the yield strength envelope for porous sandstones and the burial and tectonic stress path for contraction and extension. Stress path for extension favours shear strain localisation due to a Byerlee type mechanical behaviour, whereas stress path for contraction allows compactional strain distribution due to a yield cap compactional behaviour.

5 2.2 References Fortin, J., Shubnel, A., Guégen, Y., Elastic wave velocities and permeability evolution during compaction of Bleurswiller Sandstone. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 42, Rutter, E.H., Glover, C.T., The deformation of porous sandstones; are Byerlee friction and the critical state line equivalent? Journal of Structural Geology, no. 44, p Schultz, R.A, Soliva, R., Propagation energies inferred from deformation bands in sandstone. International Journal of Fracture, no. 176, p , doi: /s Wong, T-f., Baud, P., The brittle-ductile transition in porous rock: A review: Journal of Structural Geology, no. 44, p

6 Item DR3: Capillary Pressure Method The capacity for a fluid to pass through a porous media depends on the pressure applied to this fluid. A minimum pressure, called capillary pressure (Pc), is necessary for a non-wetting fluid (hydrocarbon, mercury) to displace a wetting fluid (air, water) in a porous network composed of pores and connections (Pittman 1992). In the figure 3, we synthesized direct measures of capillary pressure in apparatus from the following papers: Gibson (1998), Ogilvie and Glover (2001), Tueckmantle et al. (2010), and Torabi et al. (2013). We completed this data set with indirect measures of capillary pressures calculated from porosity, permeability, or pore access radius data described in the following references: Fowles and Burley (1994), Lothe et al. (2002), Al-Hinaï et al. (2008), Aydin and Ahmadov (2009), Sun et al. (2011), Ballas et al. (2013) and Ballas et al. (2014). Methods used for capillary pressure calculation are exposed below (see Torabi et al., 2013 for detailed explanation). Data are classified between structures coming from extensional tectonic regime and contractional tectonic regime. These data are used to reveal the ability of a fault to act as a barrier or conduit to fluid flow (Torabi et al., 2013). 2.1 Capillary pressure calculated from Mercury Injection-Capillary Pressure (MICP) The capillary pressure can be estimated using a graphical method from MICP data (Katz and Thompson, 1986). Because this point is generally difficult to obtain, the Washburn s equation (1921) is generally used to estimate the capillary pressure form MICP data: Pc = 2 cos R With: Pc = Capillary Pressure (psi) = Two-phase fluid interfacial tension (480 dynes/cm for Mercury/Air) = Contact angle between two-phase fluids and solid (140 for Mercury/Air) R = Effective pore-access radius ( m), corresponding to the apex point on a graph showing Hg saturation/pressure vs Hg saturation (Pittman 1992). The Pc obtained with the equation (1) is converted for a two-phase fluids oil/water using the following equation: Pc (oil/water) = 31 Pc (Hg/air) (2) Capillary pressure from Porosity-Permeability data Empirical relationship (3) between porosity, permeability and effective pore-access radius was established from 800 sandstone samples by Pittman (1992). Log (R) = log (k) log (n) (3) With: R = Effective pore-access radius ( m) k = Permeability (md) n = Porosity

7 This effective pore-access radius is used in the equation (1) to calculate the capillary pressure. 2.3 References Al-Hinai, S., Fisher, Q.J., Al-Busafi, B., Guise, P., Grattoni, C.A., Laboratory measurements of the relative permeability of cataclastic fault rocks: an important consideration for production simulation modelling. Marine and Petroleum Geology 25, Aydin, A., Ahmadov, R., Bed-parallel compaction bands in aeolian sandstone: Their identification, characterization and implications. Tectonophysics 479, Ballas, G., Soliva, R., Sizun, J-P., Fossen, H., Benedicto, A., Skurtveit, E., Shearenhanced compaction bands formed at shallow burial conditions; implications for fluid flow (Provence, FRANCE). Journal of Structural Geology 47, Ballas, G., Soliva, R., Benedicto, A., Sizun, J-P., Control of tectonic setting and large-scale faults on the basin-scale distribution of deformation bands in porous sandstone (Provence, France). Marine and Petroleum Geology 55, Fowles, J., Burley, S., Textural and permeability characteristics of faulted, high porosity sandstones. Marine and Petroleum Geology 11, Gibson, R.G., Physical character and fluid-flow properties of sandstone-derived fault zones. In: Coward, M.P., Daltaban, T.S., Johnson, H., (Eds.), Structural Geology in Reservoir Characterization. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 127, Katz, A.J., Thompson, A.H., Quantitative prediction of permeability in porous rock. Physical Review B34, Lothe, A.E., Gabrielsen, R.H., Bjørnevoll Hagen, N., Larsen, B.T., An experimental study of the texture of deformation bands : effects on porosity and permeability of sandstones. Petroleum Geoscience 8, Ogilvie, S.R., Glover, P.W.J., The petrophysical properties of deformation bands in relation to their microstructure. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 193, Pittman, E.D., Relationship of Porosity and Permeability to Various Parameters Derived from Mercury Injection-Capillary Pressure Curves for Sandstone. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 76, Sun, W., Andrade, J.E., Rudnicki, J.W., Eichhubl, P., Connecting microstructural attributes and permeability from 3D tomographic images of in situ shear-enhanced compaction bands using multiscale computations. Geophysical Research Letters 38, L Torabi, A., Fosse, H., Braathen, A., Insight into petrophysical properties of deformed sandstone reservoirs. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 97, Tueckmantel, C., Fisher, Q.J., Knipe, R.J., Lickorish, H., Khalil, S.M., Fault seal prediction of seismic-scale normal faults in porous sandstone: A case study from the eastern Gulf of Suez rift, Egypt. Marine and Petroleum Geology 27, Washburn, E.W., Note on a method of determining the distribution of pore sizes in a porous material. Proceeding of the National Academy of Science 7,