Seismic techniques for imaging fractures, cracks and faults in the Earth. Michael Kendall
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1 Seismic techniques for imaging fractures, cracks and faults in the Earth Michael Kendall
2 Issues and Challanges Geometry (aspect ratio, size, orientation, density) Non-uniqueness (e.g., single set of aligned fractures, versus multiple sets, versus more diffuse distribution) Scalelength (microcracks vs. fractures) What s inside the cracks (gas, water, oil, melt, solid) Temporal variations (stress field modulation, failure, etc.)
3 Datasets VSP Earthquakes - passive seismic monitoring Seismic reflection data Vertical seismic profiling (VSP) Borehole measurements Link to geology - outcrop, core. Seismic reflection Ideally would like P-P and S-wave S information with good angular coverage (azimuth and declination) Need dense seismic arrays (surface and borehole)
4 EAGLE: Passive source experiment in Ethiopian Rift Phase I and II Up to 80 broadband seismic stations recording local and distant earthquakes
5 Passive seismic reservoir monitoring: Microseismicity Monitoring stress state of the reservoir. hydrocarbon migration, fluid pressure, borehole breakout. Imaging tool. Many applications from conventional earthquake seismology. Relatively new technology. P S
6 Valhall and Ekofisk fields Single borehole 6 receivers, 3 component Vertical array, 20m spacing Valhall LOFS semi-permanent installation. 10,000 4C sensors, 2,500 locations on the sea bed, 120 km of cabling
7 Imaging faults and fractures
8 Scattering from faults, cracks, asperities
9 Microseismicity (de Meersman et al., 2006) - Automated, noise weighted, complex SVD, array analysis of polarisations. - Events lie on two sub-vertical faults. Locations correlate with faults interpreted from reflection data (fault map courtesy of BP).
10 Fault Plane Solutions Favourable geometry at Yibal. Complicated wave train. Analysis guided by synthetic seismic waveform modelling. North co-ordinate [m] G 4 W H Depth [m] H Fiqa Natih A Natih B-G 1 2 Nahr Umr W4 G Shuaiba East co-ordinate [m] Distance [m] & Velocity [m/s] (Al-Anboori 2005)
11 Faulting correlates with lithology: strike-slip in shale caprock; thrust /normal in reservoirs Bvertical strike slip H-Fiqa H-NatihA G-Nahr Umr G-Shuaiba Pvertical Normal Tvertical Thrust
12 Sub-seismic scale cracks and fractures A region with aligned cracks behaves like a homogeneous but anisotropic medium
13 Anisotropy due to fracturing Fractures smaller than seismic wavelength can be modelled using effective medium theory. Z N S frac = Z T Z T
14 Fracture/crack-induced Seismic Anisotropy Differential attenuation Azimuthal variations in Q
15 Seismic Toolbox for Fracture Detection Azimuthal variations in velocities Non-hyperbolic moveout in seismic reflections Azimuthal variations in amplitudes (AVOA) Shear-wave splitting Converted wave amplitude ratios Azimuthal variations in Q (attenuation) (QVOA) Frequency dependent shear-wave splitting
16 P-Wave AVOA at Valhall (Hall and Kendall, 2003)
17 Shear-wave splitting analysis. Isotropic Anisotropic Isotropic Splitting parameters: Time difference between fast and slow shear-waves; proportional to magnitude and extent of anisotropy (trade-off) Polarization of fast shear-wave; constraint on anisotropy symmetry
18 Shear-wave splitting e.g. Isotropic medium (carbonate) fractured with single set of cracks Schoenberg & Sayers (1995) ani. [%] 90 horizontal vertical Gas Crack strike Crack density = 0.05 Aspect ratio = 0.001
19 Yibal field, Oman 1+ year experiment. ~40 3C receivers. Vertical arrays in 5 boreholes. 22 days of data, 600 located events.
20 North co-ordinate [m] Yibal Anisotropy Varies with lithology. Variable fracture density - Fault bounded. P 2% 1 W1 1% 4 W4 1%? East co-ordinate [m] % Anisotropy [%] P P Depth [m] % % 6% 1% Natih B-G P Fiqa Natih A Distance [m] & Velocity [m/s] 1 2 Nahr Umr Shuaiba Anisotropy (Al-Anboori 2005)
21 Fracture intensity depends on both lithology and the location with respect to the main graben faults. Low-medium low high Gas filled cracks in the Natih A formation (Al-Anboori 2005) δt [s] Brine Crack strike Gas Crack strike 0º 90º
22 Temporal variations in anisotropy Cluster 2 Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Seismicity In-synch variations between clusters. cannot be explained with a single set of fractures.
23 Valhall Model: siltstone LPO + vertical fractures splitting (dt) Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Stress transfer between clusters
24 Fracture size estimation using frequency- dependent shear-wave splitting. Due to scattering by inhomogeneities or fluid flow (squirt flow). Transition frequency is a function or crack size. Modelling is dependent on: fluid properties (bulk modulus), porosity, crack aspect ratio, relaxation time (permeability and fluid viscosity) (Chapman, 2003) After Maultzsch et al. (2003); EAP work
25 Yibal - frequency dependent shear-wave splitting and fracture size Results for Fiqa shale cap rock. No frequency-dependent anisotropy; suggests length scales smaller than micrometer (rock is acting as a seal). Fiqa Fiqa (Al-Anboori 2005)
26 Yibal - frequency dependent shear-wave splitting Results for Natih-A Carbonate: Clear frequency dependence - modelling suggests fractures meters in size - agrees with outcrop studies and core analyses. Fiqa Fiqa (Al-Anboori 2005)
27 Anisotropy in the upper mantle Anisotropy mechanisms: olivine LPO versus oriented melt pockets LPO OMP SKS Much different patterns of shear-wave splitting SKS
28 Shear-wave splitting
29 Kendall et al., Nature, 2005 Counter-clockwise rotation within rift valley - follows trend of magmatic segments.
30 Azimuthal variations in Rayleigh and Love waves within the rift valley 10 km 35 km rift axis 45 km Crossing paths within the rift valley. Shallow crust appears to have VTI symmetry -> perhaps due to layered volcanics and sediments. Pilidou et al., 2007
31 SKS and surface wave patterns can only be explained with melt model SKS SKS LPO rift axis OMP rift axis rift axis
32 Issue: Interpretation and non-uniqueness e.g., anisotropy due to intrinsic rock fabric plus fractures, multiple fracture sets. Intrinsic + Fractures (brine) + Fractures (gas) Vertical rays Horizontal rays Hexagonal Orthorhombic Orthorhombic
33 Issue: Anisotropy on Many Length Scales LPO (crystal alignment) Grain scale contributions Fractures and Bedding kms
34 Future directions in microseismicity Range of applications (e.g., petroleum, geothermal, ground water) Challenge is to understand microseismicity Results show that there is much potential in using microseismic data to monitor stress variations. - monitor fault and fracture development - monitor stress build-up - monitor injection Ideally link with other time-lapse surveys.
35 Future Directions - links with other fields Need to integrate different types of data analysis (e.g., body waves and surface waves; seismic and electrical) Link reservoir seismicity with geomechanical modelling and reservoir simulation Link with geodynamics, tectonics (larger scale). Need to link with petrophysics, petrofabrics, geology.
36 The end
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