SHIPPING IN ARCTIC WATERS

Transcription

1

2 SHIPPING IN ARCTIC WATERS A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar Passages Willy Østreng Karl Magnus Eger Brit Fløistad Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl Lars Lothe Morten Mejlænder-Larsen and Tor Wergeland

3 Shipping in Arctic Waters A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar Passages

4

5 Willy Østreng, Karl Magnus Eger, Brit Fløistad, Arnfinn Jørgensen-Dahl, Lars Lothe, Morten Mejlænder-Larsen and Tor Wergeland Shipping in Arctic Waters A Comparison of the Northeast, Northwest and Trans Polar Passages Published in association with Praxis Publishing Chichester, UK

6 Willy Østreng University of Alaska Fairbanks and Ocean Futures Oslo Norway Ocean Futures Oslo Norway Tor Wergeland Copenhagen Denmark Karl Magnus Eger Ocean Futures Oslo Norway Lars Lothe Ocean Futures Oslo Norway Brit Fløistad Ocean Futures Oslo Norway Morten Mejlænder-Larsen Det Norske Veritas Høvik Norway SPRINGER-PRAXIS BOOKS IN GEOPHYSICAL SCIENCES SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: Philippe Blondel, C.Geol., FGS., Ph.D., M.Sc., Senior Scientist, Department of Physics, University of Bath, UK ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project copy editor: Rachael Wilkie Typesetting: David Peduzzi Printed on acid-free paper Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media (

7 Contents... xi List of tables... xiii... xv... xvii Shipping in Arctic Waters... xxi... xxiii The transportation passages of the Arctic Ocean The Northeast Passage and the Northern Sea Route Intra-Arctic, destination-arctic and transit routes of the Northern Sea Route The Northwest Passage Intra-Arctic, destination-arctic and transit routes in the Northwest Passage The Transpolar passage Intra-Arctic, destination-arctic and transit routes in the High Seas of the Arctic Ocean Connecting corridors in southern waters The Northern Maritime Corridor v

8 vi Contents The Fram Corridor The Davis Corridor The state of the Arctic: The six features combined Lack of adequate applied shipping technology Subordination of civil needs to military interests The rise of new economic interests in Arctic energy Availability of ocean space and extended security The big Arctic insiders: The USA and Russia US Arctic policy Russian Arctic policy The small Arctic insiders The Arctic Five and the Arctic Three The Arctic insider and outsider: The EU EU Arctic policy The Arctic outsiders: Asian states China Japan South Korea India Geopolitics and the regional informal operational regime Introduction World economic and shipping trends Shifting patterns of trade Trade by destination World oil and gas production and consumption International shipping trends Arctic resources Oil and gas Undiscovered oil and gas resources in the Arctic Other mineral resources Forests and forestry NWP: Economies, resources, shipping and competing modes of transport The economy and resources of the North American Arctic NWP: Shipping and Arctic resources NEP: Economies, resources and competing modes of transport Economy and resources of Arctic Russia and Norway Transportation infrastructure of the Russian Arctic

9 Contents vii 3.7 NEP: Shipping Arctic shipping routes, Arctic shipping, and Arctic resources Arctic cruise activity Cruise activity around Greenland and Svalbard Ships used in Arctic expeditions Main specialist operators The current status of cruises and expeditions in Arctic passages Arctic cruises in the future Some concluding remarks Pollution in the Arctic and shipping as an independent source of pollution Ship pollution Arctic ecosystems and the impact by shipping activities Marine ecosystems on the Northeast Passage Marine ecosystems on the Northwest Passage Marine ecosystems on the Transpolar Passage Effects of oil spill in Arctic waters Oil spill response in the Arctic Oil spill response systems on the Northeast Passage Oil spill response systems on the Northwest Passage Variability of natural conditions and shipping possibilities in the Arctic Natural conditions and navigation through the Northeast Passage Natural conditions and navigation through the Northwest Passage Natural conditions and navigation through the Transpolar Passage Some concluding remarks Technical requirements for ships operating in the Arctic National technical requirements Crew training and competence requirements in Arctic waters National crew training and competence requirements Current practices on the Northern Sea Route, the Northwest Passage and the Transpolar Passage Search and rescue in Arctic Waters Communication and support to navigation on the Northeast Passage Communication and support to navigation on the Northwest Passage Communication and support to navigation on the Transpolar Passage Communication and support to navigation on connecting sea routes

10 viii Contents 5.4 Arctic ports and terminals Russian ports and terminals on the Northeast Passage/Northern Sea Route Canadian ports on the Northwest Passage The costs and bureaucratic procedures of Arctic shipping Costs and fees on the Northern Sea Route Costs and fees on the Northwest Passage Marine insurance in Arctic waters Marine insurance aspects of the Northern Sea Route/Northeast Passage Marine insurance aspects of the Northwest Passage Marine insurance aspects of the Transpolar Passage Information needed in order to make further risk assessments Some concluding remarks International ocean law, IMO Guidelines, Soft Law including corporate governance and Arctic initiatives International ocean law: Coastal maritime zones The Polar Code: IMO Guidelines Soft law, including corporate governance and social responsibility An Arctic Treaty: Still of interest and relevance? The Northeast Passage Northern Norway and Svalbard: Coastal waters Russian Federation: Coastal waters Historical sectorial controversies and the legal uncertainties of sea ice: Still relevant? The Northwest Passage Greenland: Coastal waters Canada: Coastal waters United States Coastal waters Jurisdictional controversy The Transpolar Passage Indigenous peoples rights International conventions and declarations Regional cooperation The Northeast Passage: Indigenous peoples The Northwest Passage: Indigenous peoples The Transpolar Passage Geopolitics and power constellations

11 Contents ix The location of the Arctic Ocean The water spaces of transportation within the passages Operational spaces of military and civil activities Connecting corridors in southern waters Shipping, resources, economic trends and alternative means of transport The resources and the economies of the Arctic Developments in the world economy and shipping routes Cruise shipping Environmental challenges and other operating conditions Arctic shipping and impacts on marine ecosystems Oil spill response on Arctic transportation passages Natural conditions and shipping on the Arctic transport passages Shipping and Arctic infrastructure Technical requirements for ships operating in Arctic waters Crew training and competence requirements in Arctic waters Search and rescue in Arctic waters Arctic ports and terminals The costs and bureaucratic procedures of Arctic shipping Arctic marine insurance Ocean law, coastal waters, jurisdictional controversies and indigenous peoples rights International ocean law, recommendations and governance Indigenous peoples rights Commercial comparisons of Arctic transit routes Benchmark Route 1: General cargo ship from Yokohama to Hamburg via Suez Benchmark Route 2: Container ship from Shanghai to Hamburg via Suez Northeast Passage comparisons Northwest Passage comparisons Transpolar Passage comparisons Some comments on some of the assumptions The Passages in comparison Endnote: The commercial development of the NSR

12

13 ... 2 Overview of all vessel activity in Arctic waters for 2004, including The Arctic Ocean with transportation corridors The northern sea route The ice massifs along the NSR The NSR defined as part of Russian coastal waters and the High Seas The Barents region Ports along the NSR Seven possible routes through the NWP The sailing lanes of the NWP Transportation patterns of the NWP Arctic bridges, including the Murmansk-Churchill bridge The NMC NEP connection Transportation through the Bering Strait and the NPC The Great Circle Route The Kandalaksha voyage A Chinese view of the geopolitics of Arctic sea routes Orders for new vessels Framstredet Cairn Energy exploration offshore West Greenland Map of Canada Map of Alaska Barents Sea Map of Russia xi

14 xii Number of cruise passengers arriving at Longyearbyen, Quark Expeditions 66-day cruise around the Arctic Sea ice extent in March and September 2011, illustrating the respective monthly winter maximum and summer minimum extents Map of the 17 Arctic LMEs and linked watersheds The route north of the New Siberian Islands Regions of winter fast ice and polynyas on the NSR General locations of summer ice massifs on the NSR Route alternatives on the NWP Geographical scope of the IMO Guidelines for ships operating in Arctic ice-covered waters Shipping safety control zones Boundaries of Arctic NAVAREAs The search and rescue regions relevant to the Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic (2011) National defence SAR regions Ports and terminals on the NEP/NSR as of Existing and planned terminals in Murmansk and the Kola Bay The White Sea ports and terminals The Pechora Sea and the oil terminals Port of Tiksi and the Lena River Ongoing projects in the NWP Jurisdiction in the Arctic The Soviet sector claim and 200 nm economic zone Indigenous peoples in the Arctic Population distribution of indigenous peoples in the Arctic Bunker price developments

15 List of tables Distance in km between harbors using various southern and northern routes Share of world Gross Domestic Product China and India share of world GDP and growth of GDP Projected rates of economic growth Energy consumption in important states Share of world exports and imports Exports and imports of world, important regions and China Oil and gas consumption trends Oil and gas consumption and production trends Three stages of recovery of oil Top oil and gas producers in Growth in oil consumption by major groups of states Oil consumption changes by country over time World top consumers of oil and gas in Proved reserves of oil Proved reserves of natural gas of Arctic states and the world over time Arctic region s share of proved reserves of oil and gas Location of undiscovered resources in the Arctic Cost of drilling onshore wells US average and Alaska Year in which reserves may be depleted Key Russian forestry sector statistics Freight by transport mode (Russia) (million tonnes) Transport mode share of freights Distribution of passenger vessels with ice class Passenger vessels with ice class 1A and 1A super Estimated emissions in the Arctic 2004 by ship type Baltic and Polar Class notations xiii