Environmental Cognition and Perception I

Transcription

1 Environmental Cognition and Perception I Review: Spatial Interaction and Spatial Behavior II - Individual travel behavior - Activity space - Mental maps How we perceive the environment Maps in the head (Figure from: The New Yorker, February 1976) (Figure from: Downs, 1977, Maps in minds, New York: Harper & Row, p. 14, Fig. 1.7)

2 SOME DEMONSTRATIONS 470 /

3 Humans Space/Environment Physical/Objective Environment Perceived/Subjective Environment - Internal/Mental Representations - Cognitive Maps Behavior Multidisciplinary: Geography, Psychology Planning, Architecture, Linguistics, Anthropology, Computer Science, etc.

4 Cognitive Mapping: A process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in his [or her] everyday spatial environment. (From: Downs and Stea, 1973, Cognitive maps and spatial behavior: Process and products, In: Downs and Stea (eds.), Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior (pp. 8-26), Chicago: Aldine) GIS: - A powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes. -Automated systems for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis, and display of spatial data (From: Clarke, 2001, Getting Started with Geographic Information Systems, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, p. 3)

5 Edward Tolman: Cognitive Maps (Figures from: Tolman, 1948, Cognitive maps in rats and men, Psychological Review, v. 55, p ; p. 202 Fig. 15, p. 203 Fig 16, p. 204 Fig. 17)

6 Kevin Lynch: The Image of the City Environments at the urban scale of size, time, and complexity Legibility / Imageability 5 Elements: Paths, Edges, Districts, Nodes, Landmarks Residents of Boston, Jersey City, Los Angeles Public Images - Images of Boston - Images of Jersey City - Images of Los Angeles (Figures from: Lynch, 1960, The image of the city, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp , Figs )

7 Examples of Sketch-Map Studies (Figures from: Appleyard, 1970, Styles and methods of structuring a city, Environment and Behavior, v. 2, p ; p. 102 Fig. 1, p. 104 Fig. 3, pp Fig. 3) (Figures from: Pocock, 1976, Some characteristics of mental maps: An empirical study, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, v. 1, p ; p. 495 Fig. 1, p. 498 Fig. 2, p. 499 Fig. 3)

8 Distance Perception and Cognition Cognitive Distance - Perceptual vs. cognitive distance Measuring Distance Knowledge - Sketch maps - Psychophysical scaling - Ranking - Reproduction

9 Analyzing Distance Data - Stevens power law - Multidimensional scaling (MDS) Factors influencing distance knowledge - Feature models - Travel time models - Effort models

10 Psychophysics: Subjective and Physical Magnitudes (Figures from: Gescheider, 1997, Psychophysics: The Fundamentals (3rd ed.), Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; p. 302 Fig. 13.4, p. 303 Tab. 13.2)

11 Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) (Figures from: Golledge, Briggs, and Demko, 1969, The configuration of distances in intra-urban space, Proceedings of the Association of American Geographers, v. 1, p ; p. 62 Figs. 3, 4)

12 Maps in the Head (Figures from: Golledge and Stimson, 1997, Spatial Behavior : A Geographic Perspective, New York: Guilford Press; p. 235 Fig. 7.3, p. 249 Fig. 7.11)

13 Anchor Point Theory of Spatial Knowledge Acquisition (Figure from: Golledge (ed.), 1999, Wayfinding Behavior : Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 18, Fig. 1.1)

14 Distortions in Spatial Knowledge Error relative to objective reality ex.) Rome, Italy vs. New York, US Distortions as systematic error What distortions tell us? - content, structure, process, function Regions and hierarchies (Figures from: Stevens and Coupe, 1978, Distortions in judged spatial relations, Cognitive Psychology, v. 10, p ; p. 424 Fig. 1, p. 426 Fig. 2) (Figures from: McNamara, 1986, Mental representations of spatial relations, Cognitive Psychology, v. 18, p ; p. 91 Fig. 1, p. 93 Fig. 2) (Figure from: Hirtle and Mascolo, 1986, Effect of semantic clustering on the memory of spatial locations, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, v. 12, p ; p. 184 Fig. 1) (Figure from: McNamara, Ratcliff, McKoon, 1984, The mental representation of knowledge acquired from maps, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, v. 10, p ; p. 724 Fig. 1) (Figures from: Hirtle and Jonides, 1985, Evidence of hierarchies in cognitive maps, Memory & Cognition, v. 13, p ; p. 211 Fig 2, p. 212 Fig 3, p. 216 Fig. 7) (Figures from: McNamara, Hardy, and Hirtle, 1989, Subjective hierarchies in spatial memory, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, v. 15, p ; p. 220 Fig. 5, p. 222 Fig 7)

15 Large-Scale Space Ittelson (1973) Environment perception, as opposed to object perception 1. Surrounds, larger than humans 2. Requires movement to acquire knowledge 3. Not observe, but explore Cannot be grasped in its entirety from a single viewpoint Integration of separate places and routes Development (Ittelson, 1973, Environment perception and contemporary perceptual theory, In: Ittelson (ed.), Environment and Cognition (pp. 1-19), New York: Seminar Press)

16 Development of Spatial Knowledge in New Environments Dominant Framework (Siegel & White, 1975) 3 Stages: Landmark/Route/Survey Knowledge Alternative Framework (Montello, 1998) Continuous Development (Siegel and White, 1975, The development of spatial representations of large-scale environments, In: Reese (ed.), Advances in Child Development and Behavior (vol. 10, pp. 9-55), New York: Academic Press) (Montello, 1998, A new framework for understanding the acquisition of spatial knowledge in large-scale environments, In: Egenhofer and Golledge (eds.), Spatial and Temporal Reasoning in Geographic Information Systems (pp ), New York: Oxford University Press) (Figure from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006, Spatial knowledge acquisition from direct experience in the environment: Individual differences in the development of metric knowledge and the integration of separately learned places, Cognitive Psychology, v. 52, p ; p. 99 Fig. 1) (Figure from: Hart and Moore, 1973, The development of spatial cognition: A review, In: Downs and Stea (eds.), Image and Environment: Cognitive Mapping and Spatial Behavior (pp ), Chicago: Aldine; p. 265 Fig. 14.2)

17 Participants 24 college students Once a week, for 10 weeks Study Area Method Hope Ranch, Santa Barbara, CA Unfamiliar / No maps Few distant views 2 separate routes (2.2 km) Connecting-route (0.6 km) 4 landmarks on each route (Figure from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006, p. 101, Fig. 2)

18 Experimental Tasks - 4 landmarks on each route - Distance estimation (route / straight-line) - Direction estimation - Sketch maps Timeline of the Experiment Session Event/Task Order Travel U (or S) * * * * * * * * * * W/in direction/dist. * * * * * * * * * * Map of U (or S) * * * * * Travel S (or U) * * * * * * * * * * W/in direction/dist. * * * * * * * * * * Map of S (or U) * * * * * Travel connecting * * * * * * * B/w direction/dist. G * * * * * * * Integrated map * * * *

19 Results Mean Performance on Direction Estimation (Figure from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006, p. 105, Fig. 3) Mean Performance on Distance Estimation (Figure from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006, p. 106, Fig. 4) Individual Differences (Figures from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006; p. 111 Fig. 6, p. 125 Fig. 13)

20 Sense of Direction Circle a number to indicate your level of agreement with the statement. strongly agree strongly disagree 1. I am very good at giving directions. 2. I have a poor memory for where I left things. 3. I am very good at judging distances. 4. My sense of direction is very good. 5. I tend to think of my environment in terms of cardinal directions (NSEW). 6. I very easily get lost in a new city. 7. I enjoy reading maps. 8. I have trouble understanding directions. 9. I am very good at reading maps. 10. I don t remember routes very well while riding as a passenger in a car. 11. I don t enjoy giving directions. 12. It s not important to me to know where I am. 13. I usually let someone do the navigational planning for long trips. 14. I can usually remember a new route after I have traveled it only once. 15. I don t have a very good mental map of my environment. (From: Hegarty, Richardson, Montello, Lovelace, and Subbiah, 2002, Development of a self-report measure of environmental spatial ability, Intelligence, v. 30, p )

21 Individual Differences: Sense-of-Direction (Figure from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006, p. 113, Fig. 7) Sex-Related Differences (Figure from: Ishikawa and Montello, 2006, p. 106, Fig. 4)