SACHARIDY (CUKRY) II.

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1 SACARIDY (CUKRY) II. 1

2 Reakcie monosacharidov xidácie Alifatické aldehydy v miernych podmienkach ľahko oxidujú na karboxylové kyseliny, zatiaľ čo ketóny sú rezistentné. Slabo kyslé vodné roztoky halogénov transformujú aldózy na aldónové kyseliny. Ich izolácia je však problematická, lebo dehydratáciou okamžite cyklizujú na príslušné aldonolaktóny. Vo vodných roztokoch sa ustáli medzi laktónom a kyselinou rovnováha v závislosti od štruktúry a p. X 2, 2, p D-glukóza (X = Cl 2, Br 2, I 2 ) 87% D-glukonolaktón - 2 (Alkoholy a ketóny nepodliehajú oxidácii X 2!) Kyselina D-glukónová (Aldónová kyselina) Silné oxidačné činidlá (N 3 ) oxidujú okrem aldehydu aj primárne alkoholy za vzniku aldárových kyselín. Z D-glukózy tak vzniká kyselina D-glukárová, ktorá in situ dehydratáciou poskytne laktóny. N 3 1 C C C 2 2 D-glukóza Kyselina D-glukárová (Aldárová kyselina) 1,4-Laktón 6,3-Laktón 2 C 1 2

3 Reakcie monosacharidov xidácie Využitie Aldózy (ketózy ťažšie) poskytujú reakciou s Tollensovým činidlom príslušné aldónové kyseliny. xidantom je diamino-strieborný katión, ktorý sa redukuje na metalické striebro. Test všeobecne dokazuje prítomnosť voľných -C skupín oxidovateľných na príslušné karboxylové kyseliny. R [Ag(N 3 ) 2 ] + (R Me) + Ag 0 D-manóza (R=) Kyselina D-manónová "Strieborné zrkadlo" Tollensovo činidlo: kvalitatívny dôkaz redukujúcich cukrov Roztok CuS 4 (modrej skalice) v komplexe s vínanom (Fehling) resp. citrátom (Benedict) oxiduje alifatické aldehydy na príslušné aldónové kyseliny za vzniku červeno-hnedého precipitátu Cu 2. R D-galaktóza (R=) Cu 2+ vínan draselný (R Me) Kyselina D-galaktónová + Cu 2 Fehlingovo činidlo: klinický test diabetu - (ne)prítomnosť glukózy v moči 3

4 Reakcie monosacharidov xidácie Štiepenie diolov Reakcia vicinálnych diolov s kyselinou jodistou ( 5 I 6 ) alebo jej soľami poskytne cyklický esterový intermediát, ktorý sa štiepi za vzniku dvoch molekúl aldehydu. Tento typ oxidácie monosacharidov sa často využíva ako analyticky, tak aj synteticky. Napríklad z ochráneného D-manitolu sa oxidáciou s jodistanom sodným pripravuje bisacetonid D-glyceraldehydu ako užitočný chirálny medziprodukt. NaI 4 - Na + I + NaI acetón 2 S 4 NaI 4 Me/ 2 0 C 2 x D-manitol Bisacetonid D-manitolu Bisacetonid D-glyceraldehydu 4

5 Reakcie monosacharidov Redukcie Aldózy a ketózy sú hydridmi redukovateľné na príslušné alditoly za vzniku novej hydroxyskupiny. Zatiaľ čo aldóza poskytuje redukciou 1 produkt (glukóza glucitol), ketóza dáva diastereomérne alditoly (fruktóza glucitol + manitol). Dôvodom je diastereotopia karbonylovej skupiny ketóz. NaB 4 Et ( 2, Pd/C) NaB 4 Et NaB 4 Et D-glukóza (aldóza) D-glucitol (alditol) D-fruktóza (ketóza) D-manitol (alditol) Významným stereochemickým dôsledkom redukcie manózy na manitol je zmena symetrie produktu. Nakoľko D-manitol má oba konce reťazca identické (-C 2 ), vykazuje molekula C 2 -os symetrie. 5

6 Reakcie monosacharidov Redukcie furanose 6

7 Reakcie monosacharidov Redukcie 7

8 Reakcie monosacharidov Redukcie Alditoly ako sladidlá Redukciou niektorých cukrov sa dajú pripraviť achirálne alditoly, nakoľko majú rovinu symetrie. Xylóza poskytuje redukciou alkohol xylitol, ktorý napriek prítomnosti 3 stereogénnych centier neotáča rovinu polarizovaného svetla. Ide o tzv. mezo-zlúčeninu, ktorá je zrkadlovo symetrická. Xylitol je približne rovnako sladký ako sacharóza, pričom nesladká xylóza sa extrahuje v značných množstvách z rastlinného odpadu ako sú piliny alebo kukuričné šúľky. Xylitol sa používa ako relatívne lacné sladidlo, navyše nespôsobuje zubný kaz, nakoľko mliečne baktérie ho nie sú schopné metabolizovať na príslušné kyseliny. Cicavce však xylitol na rozdiel od baktérií čiastočne metabolizujú, preto môže slúžiť ako zdroj energie. Väčšie množstvá však majú na tráviaci systém laxatívny účinok. 8

9 Reakcie monosacharidov v bázickom prostredí Zriedené roztoky Aldózy (ale aj ketózy) podliehajú v zriedených bázických roztokoch epimerizačným prešmykom. D-glukóza v prítomnosti 0.035% Na poskytuje zmes D-fruktózy, D-manózy a pôvodnej D-glukózy. Interkonverzia D-glukóza D-manóza je epimerizáciou a kompletný prešmyk sa nazýva Lobry de Bruin-van Ekensteinova reakcia. Kľúčovým krokom je enolizácia D-glukózy na éndiol, ktorý následne ketonizuje 3 rôznymi spôsobmi na finálnu D-fruktózu, D-manózu a D-glukózu. D-glukóza (57%) 0.035% Na 35 C, 100 h éndiol D-glukózy D-fruktózy D-manózy Epimerizácia a aldózovo-ketózový prešmyk (Lobry de Bruin-van Ekensteinova reakcia) D-fruktóza (28%) D-manóza (3%) 9

10 Reakcie monosacharidov v bázickom prostredí Koncentrované roztoky Koncentrovanejšie bázické roztoky transformujú aldózy na príslušné 3-deoxyaldónové kyseliny. Prvým krokom je priama b-eliminácia vody z voľného monosacharidu za vzniku 1,2-dikarbonylovej zlúčeniny. Nasleduje adícia - nukleofilu a hydridový prešmyk poskytne finálnu aldónovú kyselinu. Nakoľko v bázickom prostredí sú hydroxylové skupiny monosacharidov čiastočne deprotonované, rýchlosť určujúcim (t. j. najpomalším) krokom celého mechanizmu je iniciálna b-eliminácia vody. Ako katalytická báza sa najčastejšie používa Ca() 2, nakoľko Ca 2+ ióny efektívne komplexujú enol. 1% Ca() C 2 D-allóza Kyselina 3-deoxyallónová 10

11 Reakcie monosacharidov v kyslom prostredí D-glukóza 2M 2 S C pomaly DEGRADÁCIA 2M 2 S C rýchlo polysacharid Kyslo-katalyzovaná dehydratácia (- 3 2 ) monosacharidov poskytuje 5-hydroxymetylfurfural (MF). ALDalebo KET- EXÓZA hydroxymetylfurán-2-karbaldehyd (5-MF) Výroba a využitie MF 11

12 Mechanizmus vzniku MF z D-fruktózy D-fruktopyranóza (1) ekvilibruje na D-fruktofuranózu (2), ktorá iniciálnou dehydratáciou poskytuje enol (3). Následnou dehydratáciou jeho oxo-formy vzniká a,b-nenasýtený aldehyd (4), ktorý podlieha finálnej dehydratácii za vzniku 5-hydroxymetylfurfuralu (MF) ako stabilného a konečného produktu. Nakoľko enolizácia je rýchlosť určujúci krok vzniku MF, D-fruktóza reaguje rýchlejšie ako D-glukóza enolizáci a 1. Tautomerizácia

13 Mechanizmus vzniku MF z D-glukózy Reaktivita D-glukózy (aldózy) je značne vyššia ako D-fruktózy (ketózy), čoho prejavom je oveľa menšie zastúpenie acyklickej glukózy v porovnaní s rovnovážnou koncentráciou otvorenej formy D-fruktózy. Avšak nakoľko D-glukóza tvorí stabilné cyklické štruktúry, jej enolizácia je pomalšia ako u D-fruktózy. Alternatívnym mechanizmom je iniciálna izomerizácia D-glukózy na D-fruktózu, ktorá sa už následne transformuje na finálny 5-hydroxymetylfurfural vyššie uvedenou kyslo-katalyzovanou transformáciou. D-glukóza Éndiol ydroxyketón D-fruktóza 13

14 Využitie 5-hydroxymetylfurfuralu (MF) 5-ydroxymetylfurfural (MF) je kľúčovým medziproduktom syntézy mnohých užitočných zlúčenín: - biopaliva 2,5-dimetylfuránu (DMF) ako alternatívy k (bio)etanolu, - fotosenzitizéru kyseliny levulínovej na fotodynamickú onkoterapiu, - monoméru FDA ako alternatívy kyseliny tereftalovej na prípravu plastov. 14

15 Kyslo-katalyzovaná hydrolýza celulózy Intra- a intermolekulové vodíkové väzby spôsobujú extrémnu stabilitu a nerozpustnosť celulózy. Výzvou je selektívna a zároveň efektívna chemodegradácia celulózy na využiteľné monosacharidy. Kyslá hydrolýza celulózy na monosacharidy je známa od roku 1819 (Braconnot), pričom charakter produktov závisí od typu a koncentrácie Brønstedovej kyseliny, rozpúšťadla, teploty a reakčného času. Zahrievanie celulózy v konc. roztoku 2 S 4 pri ~100 C počas 5-7 h poskytne >80% výťažok D-glukózy. 15

16 Kyslo-katalyzovaná hydrolýza celulózy Významnou nevýhodou štandardného technického prevedenia hydrolýzy celulózy koncentrovanou Brønstedovou kyselinou (napr. 2 S 4 ) je korózia aparatúry a generovanie značne kyslého odpadu. Riešením je použitie imobilizovaného heterogénneho kyslého katalyzátora, ktorý je navyše ľahko odstrániteľný z reakčnej zmesi po ukončení hydrolýzy - napr. vo forme magnetických nanočastíc. Katalyzátor pozostáva z polymérnej matrice na báze silánov obsahujúcich terminálne -S 3 skupiny. Kombináciou polyméru s nanočasticami Fe 3 4 sa získa tuhá magnetická kyselina s definovanou mezoporéznou mikroštruktúrou. Pripravený heterogénny katalyzátor je tepelne stabilný a recyklovateľný. (Lai et al.: ChemSusChem 2011, 4, 55) 16

17 Katalytické one-pot transformácie celulózy 17 17

18 Využitie lignocelulózy na výrobu chemikálií a palív 18

19 Reakcie monosacharidov Degradácie Ruff Ruffova degradácia využíva peroxid vodíka v prítomnosti železitanov na premenu vápenatých solí hexónových kyselín na pentózy. Tentatívne sa predpokladá vznik komplexu cukor/fe 3+ / (Ca 2+ ) 1/ Fe 3+ + C 2 D-Glukonát vápenatý (exóza) D-Arabinóza (Pentóza) tto Ruff ( ) Mechanisticky predstavuje Ruffova degradácia dvojnásobnú (jedno)elektrónovú oxidáciu. V prvom kroku je aldonát (1) oxidovaný na acyloxy radikál (2), ktorý po eliminácii C 2 a následnej oxidácii poskytne karbkatión (3). Ten je finálne atakovaný 2 za vzniku gem-diolu. 19

20 Reakcie monosacharidov Degradácie unsdiecker unsdieckerova degradácia zahŕňa bromáciu striebornej soli karboxylovej kyseliny s následnou termickou dekarboxyláciou za vzniku o uhlík kratšieho alkylhalidu. Ten sa finálnou reakciou s AgAc prevedie na maskovaný aldehyd, ktorý sa izoluje vo forme diesteru terminálneho acetálu. Ac - Ag + Ac Ac Ac Ac Br 2, CCl 4 80 C, 4 h Ac Br Ac Ac Ac Ac - C 2 Ac Br Ac Ac Ac Ac AgAc Ac Ac Ac Ac Ac Ac D-gluko (exóza) D-arabino (Pentóza) einz unsdiecker & Cläre unsdiecker ( ) ( ) University of Göttingen 20

21 Reakcie monosacharidov omologácie Kiliani-Fischer Kyanidový anión reprezentuje dostupnú formu nukleofilného uhlíka, ktorý reaguje s aldehydmi a ketónmi za vzniku kyánhydrínov. Tie obvykle nie sú izolované, ale priamo hydrolyzované na príslušné aldónové kyseliny. Z nich sa finálne aldózy dajú pripraviť totálnou redukciou s LiAl 4. CN C 2 D-Arabinóza (Pentóza) NaCN 2 p 9 + CN + / 2 + / 2 + C 2 Kyselina D-glukónová Kyselina D-manónová Kyánhydríny (exózy) 21

22 (BI)SYNTÉZA MNSACARIDV 22

23 Najdôležitejšia (bio)chemická reakcia na Zemi Fotosyntéza 6 C chlorofyl C nm ( = 2870 kj/mol) 23

24 Formose reaction Background The self-condensation of formaldehyde is a one-pot reaction resulting in a complex mixture of sugars. Usually, an alkaline environment (p~11) and the presence of catalytically active species are required. The formose reaction was previously considered as a prebiotic source for carbohydrates generation. owever, due to the fast degradation of sugars and the missing selectivity, this hypothesis is doubtful. Alexander Michailovič Butlerov ( ) 24

25 Formose reaction Mechanism Formaldehyde usually does not react with itself establishing a C C bond, so that the simplest sugar glycolaldehyde is formed slowly. owever, as soon as some condensation product is present, a cascade of reactions is initiated, ultimately leading to the formation of various straight/branched carbohydrates. Elongation of the carbohydrate backbone occurs via base-catalysed aldol condensation with C, accompanied by isomerisations. In alkaline medium retro-aldol reactions take place as well, whereupon both resulting fragments can act as initiators again, thus leading to an autocatalytic system. Due to their relative stability pentoses and hexoses are the main products. For prolonged reaction times however they decompose, recognisable by the yellowing / darkening of the reaction mixture. 25

26 ydrothermal formose reaction abitats with superheated water are available in submarine areas with volcanic activity and such hydrothermal vents with temperatures around 200 C at a pressure of 20 bar are present in oceans. In order to mimic such a demanding conditions, a continuous flow-reactor was designed and tested. Thus, a 0.5 M formaldehyde solution was heated to 200 C under a pressure of 100 bar. (It should be noted, however, that such a high concentration of C is not along with prebiotic conditions.) To vary the p and to probe for the potential catalysis of simple ions (Na, K, Ca) salts were added. Contrary to the formose reaction at ambient temperatures, where hexoses are the main products, here the shorter carbohydrates (tetroses and pentoses) are preferentially formed. Despite the high stability that is in principle expected for hexoses, their amount is insignificant at 200 C. Thus, these results do not show the formose reaction as a player in the prebiotic formation of carbohydrates. ydrothermal vent (Black smoker) (D. Kopetzki et al.: New J. Chem., 2011, 35, 1787) 26

27 Biosyntéza kyseliny L-askorbovej Esenciálny vitamín Má antioxidačné vlastnosti D-enantiomér je neaktívny 27

28 Biosyntéza kyseliny L-askorbovej [] 28

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