Vera Krischik, Associate Professor, Depart of Entomology, UMinnesota and others

Transcription

1 March 26, 2015, Pollinators cubed, Residues in soils, crops, flowerig plants, trees Visit pollinator conservation website: Bulletins, posters, online workshop, research, Vera Krischik, Associate Professor, Depart of Entomology, UMinnesota and others

2 Talk summary: Neonicotinyl residues in plants 1. Imidacloprid rates vary among sites. Residue in nectar and pollen varies from applications. Agricultural field 0.1 mg imidacloprid/canola seed (Gaucho) 1.2 mg imidacloprid/corn seed (Gaucho) 4 mg imidacloprid/sg ft ag field (Admire Pro) Nursery/greenhouse 300 mg /3 gallon pot (~1 sg ft) (Marathon1%G) Landscape 3.7 mg/sg ft turf (Bayer Adv Season Long Grub Control) 122 mg 4 times/yr (Bayer Adv Rose & Flower) 10.2mg/sg ft 4 times/yr (Bayer Adv Rose &Fl)

3 Talk summary: Neonicotinyl residues in plants 2. Seed treatments result in the low residue of neonicotinyl insecticide in nectar and pollen (less than 7.6 ppb). Few studies demonstrate that seed treatments reduce honeybee colony health. 4. Bees have 40% more n-nicotinic acetylcholinesterase receptors which are used in orientation, navigation, and learning. 3. However, many papers demonstrate that neonicotinyl insecticides affect foraging, learning, and orientation at sublethal dose starting ~ 10 ppb below the lethal dose of 185 ppb.

4 Contact compared to systemic insecticides Contact insecticides: Many used; sprayed on foliage Insect must eat leaf or walk on leaf to be killed Toxicity lasts 1-3 weeks Flowers that open after spraying do not contain insecticides. Systemic insecticides: Uncommon; treated-seed, soil drench, trunk-inject Insect must eat leaf, pollen, or nectar to be killed Toxicity can least for months to years, unknown Flowers that open will have the insecticide in pollen and nectar for months to years, unknown

5

6 Many stresses contribute to CCD in honeybees 6

7 Neonicotinyl insecticide use in /442 US million acres use neonicotinyl insecticides 83+ million acres of corn have neonicotinyl treatedseed and honeybees use corn for pollen Active ingredient (ai) in lbs imidacloprid clothianidin thiamethoxam MN 52,048 43,663 68,876 CA 348,247 3,812 30,687 US 700,000 1,2000, ,000

8 Imidacloprid, USGS map, EPA registered 1994

9 Thiamethoxam, USGS map, EPA registered 2000

10 Clothianidin, USGS map, EPA registered 2003

11 Dinotefuran, USGS map, EPA registered 2004

12 Neonicotinyl insecticide toxicity Sublethal dose: more than 20 ppb (2ng/bee) reduces foraging, memory, and navigation Aspirin 80mg = 80,000microg = 80,000,000ng Lethal dose Oral LD 50 ng/bee in 20µL Pollen/ nectar ppb (ng/.1gbee) imidacloprid Reference Schmuck et al. 2001, EFSA 2013 clothianidin dinotefuran thaimethoxam Iwas et al. 2004, EFSA 2013 EFSA 2013 EFSA 2013

13 use Seed treatment Field crops/ turf Greenhouse pot Landscape, rose 10 in DBH 24 in DBH rate 0.1 mg AI/seed canola 1. 2mg AI/seed corn EFSA mg/sg ft Dively and Kamal 2012, Stoner and Eitzer 2012 Larson 2012, mg AI/pot Krischik et al mg AI/plant (2 times) Krischik et al g AI 67 g AI Krischik et al. 2014

14 Incident: 2009 Imidacloprid residue in linden trees. Report from 2009 Imidacloprid soil injection at a golf course State of California, Department of Pesticide Regulations, Evaluation report on Merit 2F applied to 11 Tilia cordata linden trees at a golf course in Willimington DE in 2006 and 2007 and hundreds of dead bees found at the trees in 2008 Imidacloprid in leaves was 2,600-11,700 ppb Imidacloprid in dead bumblebees was 146 ppb For regulatory purposes, the LD 50 of imidacloprid to the honey bee is 3.7 ng/bee=37 ppb. Bayer CropScience indicated the amount in the bees exceeded the LD50.

15 Comparing seed, agricultural, and landscape rates. Agricultural label (Admire Pro) 4 g/citrus tree 10 ppb in citrus nectar (Byrne et al. 2013) Agricultural label 0.1 mg imidacloprid/canola seed (Gaucho) 1.2 mg imidacloprid/ corn seed (Gaucho) 4 mg imidacloprid/sg ft agricultural fields/lawns 300 mg imidacloprid in 3 gal pot (Marathon 1%G) 250 times more imidacloprid in pot than corn seed Landscape tree label (Merit 4F) 28 g/linden tree 33 ppb in linden flowers same year (Krischik et al. 2015) 146 ppb in dead bumblebees feeding on linden flowers after two spring applications (CA EPA 2009)

16 Residue in pollen and nectar, very few papers Plant Neonicotinyl ppb Reference Sunflower (treatedseed) Pumpkin (soil drench) Milkweed (soil drench) Clover nectar (soil drench) 2 nectar 4 pollen 4-12 nectar pollen 1,973-6,000 ppb nectar 171 ppb (1X, clothianidin) Schmuck et al Dively & Hooks 2010 Krischik 2013 Larson et al. 2013

17 Imidacloprid residue in landscape plants Dose in mg/soil Dead bees on Agastache Agastache spp. nectar ppb Asclepias spp. nectar ppb penick.net Esperanza spp. nectar ppb Rosa spp. pollen ppb 0 0.6b 6b 3c 0c 26b b 52b 80c 8c 36b b 133b 175bc 21c 30b 300 1X 3 gal 600 2X 3 gal 1.1ab 1973b 1568bc 106c 95b 2.4a 5265ab 2950b 276b 332b

18 Linden soil drench June Aug leaves 554 ppb 1,023 ppb soil 15,436 ppb 5,956 ppb flowers 33 ppb (3.6 to 72 ppb, n=8) 2013 sampled leaves, soil, flowers from trees1-8 did not retreat

19 Residues of neonicotinyls in pollen and nectar Plant Imidacloprid ppb Reference Maple tree 199 ppb flower USDA APHIS 2003 Eucalyptus tree (soil drench) Horsechestnut (trunk injection) 550 ppb nectar Paine et al ppb flower Bayer, Maus et al. 2004b Serviceberry (soil drench) 1,038-2,816 ppb flower Bayer, Doering et al. 2005a,b Rose outside (soil drench) Rose GH (soil drench) Yellow bells (soil drench) ppb pollen Krischik et al ppb pollen Krischik et al nectar ppb Krischik et al. 2015

20 A 2014 review paper plants sold at garden centers Of 69 flower samples, 43 or 62% contained a neonicotinyl insecticide (27 imidacloprid, 4 clothianidin, 10 thiamethoxam, and 2 dinotefuran). The range of neonicotinyl insecticide in the flower samples was 2 to 879 ppb. Some of the flowers (24%, 10/43) contained neonicotinyl levels high enough to kill bees. Furthermore, (24%, 10/43) contained two or more neonicotinoids.

21 A 2014 review paper plants sold at garden centers This is the second report that links neonicotinyl use in plant propagation in nurseries and greenhouses to residue in nectar and pollen and potential effects on foraging bees. It is not necessary to remove plants from your garden that may have been treated with systemic neonicotinyl insecticides when you purchased them. You do not know if they were treated with neonicotinyl insecticides and residue in plants decreases with time.

22 A 2014 review paper plants sold at garden centers Many bedding plants are bred to produce sterile flowers that do not produce pollen and nectar. Flowers that are double, such as marigolds and geraniums, are not attractive to bees.

23 Residues in volunteer flowers from seed treatments or turf 9 ppb in dandelions in field margins, 2012 Krupke et al Colonies exposed to clothianidin-treated weedy turf had delayed weight gain and produced no new queens whereas those exposed. Nectar in clover flowers had 171±44 ppb clothianidin. Larson et al. 2013

24 Neonicotinoid half-life in soils By far the bulk of the active ingredient, typically more than 90%, remains in the soil after uptake by the plant. half-lives in soil typically range from 28 to 1250 days for imidacloprid; days for thiamethoxam; days for clothianidin; Gould 2013

25 Neonicotinoid residue in soils after seed treatments In soil samples concentrations of clothianidin ranged from 0.02 to 13.6 ppb. thiamethoxam ranged from <0.02 to 1.50 ppb imidacloprid concentrations ranged from <0.09 to 10.7 ppb. Jones et al.2014

26 Duration of imidacloprid from 1X application 12 months on linden (Frank et al. 2007, Johnson and Williamson 2007) 12 months on poplar (Tenczar and Krischik 2007) 12 months on ash (McCullough et al. 2003) 24 months on hemlock (Cowles et al. 2006) 24 months cotoneaster (Szczepaniec and Raupp 2007

27 Impacts of grub control on non-target soil-active arthropods A significant cumulative effect of treatment was detected for total hexapods, Collembola, Thysanoptera and Coleoptera adults, but not oribatid mites, non-oribatid mites, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera larvae or Diptera. Imidacloprid suppressed the abundance of those broad taxonomic groups by 54 62%. Peck 2008

28 Impacts of grub control on non-target soil-active arthropods When exposed to turf plots treated with imidacloprid, the carabid beetle Harpalus pennsylvanicus displayed a range ofneurotoxic problems including paralysis, impaired walking and excessive grooming that rendered the individuals vulnerable to predation from ants. Kunkel et al carabid species exposed to corn seedlings treated to field doses of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam or clothianidin. 100 % mortality in 4 days. Mullin et al. 2010

29 Impacts of grub control on nontarget soil-active Clothianidin and the clothianidin-bifenthrin combination retarded grass clipping decomposition, and the combination suppressed earthworms and casts more than did carbaryl, a toxic standard. Larson, Redmond, Potter 2012

30 Insect Species Level Kills lady beetle, lacewing, parasitic wasp, and bumble bees Kills honeybees in one sip Foraging behavior Foraging behavior reduced, which results in less colony weight and fewer queens 1X label rate Krischik 5 papers 3 sp lady beetles 1 wasp 1 lacewing ppb (CA EPA290, Fischer and Chalmers 2007) ppb ppb

31 Other aspects of foraging and neonicotinyls Bee ppb Reference Honey bee recruit to food Honey bee orientation Honey bee foraging Honey bee foraging Honey bee dance effectiveness Honey bee directionality during flight 20 ppb imidacloprid Schmuck et al. 2001; Schmuck ppb clothianidin Lambin et al ppb Colin et al ppb Colin et al ppb Schneider et al ppb imidacloprid 25 ppb clothianidin Menzel et al. 2014

32 Foraging and neonicotinyls Bee ppb Reference Honey bee foraging Honey bee foraging Honey bee foraging Bombus terrestris foraging Bombus impatiens foraging Bombus impatiens foraging 15 ppb imidacloprid Schneider et al ppb clothianidin Henry et al ppb thiamethoxam Schneider et al ppb imidacloprid Mommaerts et al. 2012; Gill et al ppb imidacloprid Morandin and Winston ppb imidacloprid, Gill et al % did not return

33 Foraging and neonicotinyls Bee ppb Reference Bombus terrestris 0.7 nectar and 6 ppb pollen imid; 8% - 12% Colony weight lower; 85%Queen product lower Bombus terrestris 10 ppb, Pollen collecting efficancy/brood care reduced Bombus impatiens 114 ppb, reduced colony weight, no queen production Bombus terrestris 10 ppb, reduced pollen foraging Bombus terrestris 0.7 nectar and 6 ppb pollen imidacloprid, reduced pollen foraging Bombus impatiens 10 ppb reduced feeding, food storage, colony weight Whitehorn et al Gill et al Larson et al 2012 Gill and Raine 2014 Feltham et al Scholer and Krischik 2014

34 Save the bees by planting flowers and trees 1. Use contact insecticides on flowering plants, such as bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, neem, azadirachtin, an d spinosad. 2. Do not use systemic insecticides. 3. Plant a seasonal phenology of native and garden plants for nectar and pollen. 4. Only single-flowered plants, not double flowers, provide pollen and nectar. 5. Provide overwintering habitat for bees. 6. Do not kill queen bees in the spring/fall, they will not sting Understand the different types of bees and

35

36 Neonicotinoids and bumblebees 0 ppb = control 10 ppb = pollen from seed treatments 20 ppb = NOEC from Bayer, but affects behavior 50 ppb = Field pumpkin study 100 ppb = Lower level found in landscape plants LD50 imidacloprid 4-40 ng/bee = ppb LD50 \clothianidin 4 ng/bee = 40 ppb

37 Bumble bee colonies in the greenhouse

38 Bumble bee colonies with flight box Brood box Flight box

39 Percent Mortality Queen mortality (week 8) Imidacloprid Clothianidin 7/8 8/ / /8 5/ /8 2/ Neonicotinoid (ppb)

40 Percent Consumption Sugar syrup consumption (Week 8) ANOVA: F = 22.2, df = 4, 35, p = a ANOVA: F = 34.5, df = 4, 28, p = A Imidacloprid Clothianidin b B BC c C c C c Neonicotinoid (ppb)

41 Weight g. Mean colony weight (final) ANOVA: F = 16.2, df = 4, 35, p = A a ANOVA: F = 16.1, df = 4, 37, p = Imidacloprid Clothianidin a B BC C b C b b Neonicotinoid (ppb)

42 Honey pots Mean number of honey pots (final) a ANOVA: F = 5.3, df = 4, 35, p = ANOVA: F = 12.7, df = 4, 37, p = Imidacloprid Clothianidin 150 ab A AB bc bc AB B B c Neonicotinoid (ppb)

43 Soil-applied imidacloprid alters predator and parasitoid survival and behavior: 1. Coleomegilla maculata, Harmonia axyridis, Hippodamia convergens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) 2. Anagyrus pseudococci (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) 3. Chrysoperal carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) 4. Bombus impatiens (Hymenoptera: Apidae)

44 Soil-applied imidacloprid alters survival and behavior of Coleomegilla maculata by 14 d sunflower dandelion chrysanthemum Fecundity P < ns ns Walk rate P < P < P < Flip time P < P < P < 0.010

45 % Survival Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Coleomegilla, Hippodamia Harmonia a b F= P= df= 4, 117 b ab ab a Day 3 b F= P< df= 4, 149 c c c a a ab F= P= df= 4, 84 b C-C 1X-C 1X-1X 2X-C 2X-2X ab 0 Coleomegilla Hippodamia Harmonia

46 % Survival Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Coleomegilla, Hippodamia Harmonia a F= P< df= 4, 117 a Day 12 b F= P < df= 4, 149 F= P= df= 4, 84 a ab abc c C-C 1X-C 1X-1X 2X-C 2X-2X bc b c bc c c c c Coleomegilla Hippodamia Harmonia

47 Soil-applied imidacloprid alters survival and behavior of Anagyrus pseudococci (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

48 % Survivorship % Survivorship % Survivorship Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Anagyrus Experiment 1 Day (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) 75 * 50 * 25 * 0 Experiment Day 1 % survivorship of Anagyrus pseudococci at 1 d * * 0 Experiment Day * 25 * 0 2X 1X AZ UF UFS LVS S N Treatments

49 % Survivorship % Survivorship % Survivorship Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Anagyrus Experiment 1 (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) Day * 50 * Experiment 2 Day 7 % survivorship of Anagyrus pseudococci at 7 d * * Experiment 3 Day X 1X AZ UF UFS LVS S N Treatments

50 Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Chrysoperal carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

51 Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Chrysoperal carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) % trembling Chrysoperla carnea mean percent trembling (Day 6) F= df= 2,5 p< b b F= 11.7 df= 2,4 p= a b F= 7.6 df= 2,9 p= b b F= 16.4 df= 2,24 p<.0001 b b C 1X 2X 10 a a a a 0 10/3/ /24/ /7/2005 Combined Replicate Start Date

52 Soil-applied imidacloprid alters behavior and survival of Chrysoperal carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) % suvival Chrysoperla carnea mean percent survival (Day 10) a F= 83.3 df= 2,5 p= a F= df= 2,9 p= <.0001 a F= df= 2,9 p= <.0001 a F= df= 2,24 p= b b b c b b b b C 1X 2X 0 10/3/ /24/ /7/2005 Combined Replicate Start Date

53 Bee Plants How are plants pollinated? Pollen collects on hairs and scales of insects. Most bees also have specialized structures called corbiculae or scopae to collect pollen. corbicula

54 Bee Plants Early Season Bloomers Serviceberry (Amelanchier spp.) Pussy willow (Salix discolor) Photos: Prairie Moon Nursery,

55 Bee Plants Early Season Bloomers Carolina lupine (Thermopsis villosa) Siberian squill (Scilla siberica) Photos: Carolina lupine: Prairie Moon Nursery, Siberian squill: Heike Löchel (fotografiert von Heike Löchel) [CC-BY-SA-2.0-de ( via Wikimedia Comms

56 Bee Plants Early to Mid Season Bloomers Wild rose (Rosa species) Basswood, linden (Tilia americana) Photos: Wild rose: Prairie Moon Nursery, Basswood: Paul Wray, Iowa State University, Bugwood.org

57 Bee Plants Early to Mid-Season Bloomers Garden sage (Salvia nemorosa 'May Night') Catmint (Nepeta x faassenii) Photos: North Creek Nurseries,

58 Bee Plants Mid Season Bloomers Purple prairie clover (Petalostemum candida) Swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) Photos: Purple prairie clover: Prairie Moon Nursery, Swamp milkweed: North Creek Nurseries, *Also consider: Common milkweed (A. syriaca), butterfly weed (A. tberosa)

59 Bee Plants Mid Season Bloomers Billard's spiraea (Spiraea x billardii 'Triumphans') Photos: Billard s Spiraea: Alfred Osterloh, via Hortipedia Commons Catnip: Theodore Webster, USDA Ag Research Service, Bugwood.org Catnip (Nepeta cataria)

60 Bee Plants Mid to Late Season Bloomers Anise hyssop (Agastache foeniculum) Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) Photos: Anise hyssop: Prairie Moon Nursery, Wild bergamot: North Creek Nurseries,

61 Bee Plants Mid to Late Season Bloomers Sunflower (Helianthus species) Globethistle (Echinops species) Photos: Sunflower: Prairie Moon Nursery, Globethistle: Barbara Tokarska-Guzik, University of Silesia, Bugwood.org

62 Bee Plants Late Season Bloomers New England aster (Symphyotrichum novae-angliae) Goldenrod (Solidago species) Photos: New England aster: North Creek Nurseries, Goldenrod: Prairie Moon Nursery,

63 Bee Plants Late Season Bloomers Korean angelica (Angelia gigas) Stonecrop (Sedum species) Photos: Korean angelica: Hardyplants at English Wikipedia (Own work) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons Stonecrop: North Creek Nurseries,

64 Save the bees by planting flowers and trees 1. Use contact insecticides on flowering plants, such as bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, neem, azadirachtin, an d spinosad. 2. Do not use systemic insecticides. 3. Plant a seasonal phenology of native and garden plants for nectar and pollen. 4. Only single-flowered plants, not double flowers, provide pollen and nectar. 5. Provide overwintering habitat for bees. 6. Do not kill queen bees in the spring/fall, they will not sting Understand the different types of bees and

65 Conclusions 1. Most bedding plants and hanging baskets contain cultivars not visited by bees. 2. So neonicotinyl use in nurseries and greenhouse do not affect beneficial insects as they do not feed on these plants. 3. Many new EPA registered insecticides can be used on native and heirloom plants visited by bees. 4. Seed treatments result in the lowest levels of neonicotinyl insecticide in nectar and pollen. Few studies demonstrate that seed treatments reduce honeybee health. 5. However, greenhouse and landscape applications use higher rates compared to agriculture. 6. However, many, many papers demonstrate that neonicotinyl insecticides affect foraging, learning, and orientation at sub lethal levels below 192 ppb. 7. The n-nicotinic acetylcholinesterase receptors are 40% higher in bees that use dancing, navigation, and learning to find food.

66 Chemical class Carbamates Neonicotinoid Examples of common names carbaryl, methomyl imidacloprid thiamethoxam clothianidin dinotefuran imid+bifenthrin Less toxic: acetamiprid (A) thiacloprid (T) Bee Toxicity No Low Mod High All x All x All x

67 Chemical class Examples of common names Organophosphates acephate, chlorpyrifos, dimethoate, malathion, phosmet Pyrethroids bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, fenpropathrin, lambdacyhalothrin, permethrin Botanical pyrethrins azadirachtin No n Bee Toxicity Lo Mod High w All x x All x x

68 Chemical class Insect growth regulators Juvenile hormone Diamides Macrocyclic lactones Examples of common names diflubenzuron tebufenozide azadirachtin buprofezin pyriproxyfen novaluron cyromazine s-kinoprene chlorantranilipro le cyantraniliprole abamectin/ avermectin Bee Toxicity Non Low Mod High All x x x x x x x x x

69 Chemical class Miticides Examples of common names acequinocyl, ex toxazole, fenpyr oximate, fenbut atin-oxide Bee Toxicity Non Low Mod High All x clofentezine, x,x hexythiazox bifenazate x pyridaben chlorfenapyr x spiromesiifen x Spinosyns spinosad, less x toxic when dry Tetronic acids spirotetramat x x

70 Chemical class Pyridine carboxamide Pyridine azomethines Avermectin Other insecticides Examples of common names flonicamid pymetrozine emamectin benzoate Bacillus thuringiensis, potassium salts fatty acids soaps horticultural mineral oils, neem oil Bee Toxicity Non Low Mod High x x x x x x

71 Linden trees: Imidacloprid applied to linden to kill adult JB, but linden is a favorite bee plant 71

72 Incident Around 25,000 bumblebees and others were found dead under trees at the Target store in Wilsonville, Oregon on Monday, June 17, The neonicotinyl insecticide dinotefuran (label Safari) was applied pre-bloom according to label. Dead in the parking lot, Bombus vosenesenskii

73 Incident Residue data confirmed dinotefuran, but data was not released by Oregon Depart. Agriculture. Another bee kill occurred in Hillsboro, OR. Trees were covered in nets and dinotefuran use is banned for 6 months in Oregon.

74 Save the bees by planting flowers and trees 1. Use contact insecticides on flowering plants, such as bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, neem, azadirachtin, an d spinosad. 2. Do not use systemic insecticides. 3. Plant a seasonal phenology of native and garden plants for nectar and pollen. 4. Only single-flowered plants, not double flowers, provide pollen and nectar. 5. Provide overwintering habitat for bees. 6. Do not kill queen bees in the spring/fall, they will not sting Understand the different types of bees and

75 Systemic insecticides Organophosphates aldicarb (Temik), oxamyl (Vydate), dimethoate (Cygon) Neonicotinyl imidacloprid (Marathon, Merit), clothianidin, thiamethoxam, dinotefuran, spirotetramat (Movento/Kontos, class tectronic acid, lipd synthesis), sulfloxaflor (Transform/Closer) Novel mode of action pymetrozine (Endeavor) Translaminar, or local, systemic activity Botanical- azadirachtin, neem Microbial- abamectin (Avid) IGR- pyriproxyfen (Distance) PR- chlorfenapyr (Pylon) SP-spinosad (Conserve) OP- acephate (Orthene)

76 Insecticides are threats to bees Organophosphates + Pyrethroids, are very toxic to bees. Dimethoate is highly toxic, LD ng/bee Chlorpyrifos is toxic, LD ng/bee Methyl parathion is highly toxic, LD ng/bee Coumaphos is 180 times less than methyl parathion, with LD50 of 2030 ng/ bee Esfenvalerate is highly toxic, LD ng/bee Cyfluthrin is highly toxic, LD 50 37ng/bee Zeta-cypermethrin is extremely toxic, LD50 2 ng/bee Lambda cyhalothrin is highly toxic, LD ng/bee Permethrin is extremely toxic, LD 50 8 ng/bee

77 Water solubility: Neonicotinyl insecticides name imidacloprid clothianidin dinotefuran thiamethoxam Merit Marathon Arena Safari Flagship Meridian emamectin benzoate Tree age KOC ,000 Solubility (mg/l) LD50 (acute rat oral) (mg/kg) >5,000 4,870 >2,000 5,523 1,516 dinotefuran is 80 times more water soluble than imidacloprid emamectin benzoate has very low mobility (KOC) and long duration

78 Incident: 2009 Imidacloprid residue in linden trees. Report from 2009 Imidacloprid soil injection at a golf course State of California, Department of Pesticide Regulations, Evaluation report on Merit 2F applied to 11 Tilia cordata linden trees at a golf course in Willimington DE in 2006 and 2007 and hundreds of dead bees found at the trees in 2008 Imidacloprid in leaves was 2,600-11,700 ppb Imidacloprid in dead bumblebees was 146 ppb For regulatory purposes, the LD 50 of imidacloprid to the honey bee is 3.7 ng/bee=37 ppb. Bayer CropScience indicated the amount in the bees exceeded the LD50.

79 What are bees?» Most bees are solitary; honey bees, bumble bees, and some sweat bees are social.» Among the social bees, only honey bee colonies are perennial (survive year to year).» Solitary and social wasps are sometimes mistaken for bees. Social wasps have annual colonies like bumble bees. 79

80 Red-tailed bumble bee (Bombus ternarius) Rob Routledge, Sault College, Bugwood.org Common eastern bumble bee (B. impatiens) David Cappaert, Michigan State University, Bugwood.org Bumble Bees, Bombus spp., Order Hymenoptera Family Apidae 80 These large (10 to 23 mm), hairy bees are the only truly social bees native to the United States. Colonies are annual. Fecundated queens emerge in spring and begin colonies in the ground. Queens mate with unrelated males before overwintering in the ground.

81 Bumble bee colony life cycle 1. A queen emerges from hibernation in spring and finds a nest site, such as an abandoned rodent burrow. 2. She creates wax pots to hold nectar and pollen, on which she lays and incubates her eggs. 3 In autumn the colony produces new queens and male bees. 4. Newly mated queens hibernate and the rest of the bees die. 81

82 Honey Bee Colony Inside a honey bee colony. Note capped brood cells containing pupae and open brood cells with larvae (unlike bumble bees, who cap cells 82 immediately after laying eggs).

83 Bumble Bee Colony Inside a commercial bumble bee colony. Note capped brood cells, shiny honey pots full of nectar, and size difference between 83 workers and two large queens (one is newly produced).

84 Policy changes over neonicotinyls and bees Dec 2014 Neonicotinoids banned from use on linden trees in Oregon 2014 Oct Council on Environmental Quality and Government Services Agency pg 15, "5. Acquire seeds and plants from nurseries that do not treat their plants with systemic insecticides" June 14 Presidet Obama memorandum on united policy for pollinator conservation 2013 Dec: EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) European Union enacts a 2 year ban. EFSA neonicotinyl treated-seed are a bee risk

85 Policy changes over neonicotinyls and bees 2012 March: US Beekeepers petition for clothianidin to be withdrawn from sale 2013 June: Oregon bans dinotefuran for 6 mos : Bee deaths are linked to the planting of neonicotinyl treated-seed crops 2009: California calls for a review of the effects of neonicotinyl insecticides on bees : New York restricts use of imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, dinotefuran, and clothianidin 1996: France bans imidacloprid use as treatedseed on sunflowers, Germany, Spain, Italy and