Astronomical Optics. Second Edition DANIEL J. SCHROEDER ACADEMIC PRESS

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1 Astronomical Optics Second Edition DANIEL J. SCHROEDER Professor of Physics and Astronomy, Emeritus Department of Physics and Astronomy Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin ACADEMIC PRESS A Harcourt Science end Technology Company San Diego San Franciso New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo

$2. Paraxial Equation for Refraction 9 2.3. Paraxial Equation for Reflection 12 2.4. Two-Surface Refracting Elements 14 2.5. Two-Mirror Telescopes 17$

2 Contents Preface Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. A Bit of History Approach to Subject Outline of Book 4 Chapter 2 Preliminaries: Definitions and Paraxial Optics Sign Conventions Paraxial Equation for Refraction Paraxial Equation for Reflection Two-Surface Refracting Elements Two-Mirror Telescopes Stops and Pupils Concluding Remarks 25 Bibliography 26 Chapter 3 Fermat's Principle: An Introduction Fermat's Principle in General Fermat's Principle and Refracting Surfaces Wave Interpretation of Fermat's Principle Fermat's Principle and Reflecting Surfaces Conic Sections Fermat's Principle and the Atmosphere 42

Vlll Contents 3.7. Concluding Remarks 45 References 47 Bibliography 47 Chapter 4 Introduction to Aberrations 48 4.1. Reflecting Conies and Focal Length 49 4.2. Spherical Aberration 50 4.3. Reflecting Conies and Finite Object Distance 57 4.

3 Vlll Contents 3.7. Concluding Remarks 45 References 47 Bibliography 47 Chapter 4 Introduction to Aberrations Reflecting Conies and Focal Length Spherical Aberration Reflecting Conies and Finite Object Distance Off-Axis Aberrations Aberration Compensation 61 References 69 Bibliography 69 Chapter 5 Fermat's Principle and Aberrations Application to Surface of Revolution Evaluation of Aberration Coefficients Ray and Wavefront Aberrations Summary of Aberration Results, Stop at Surface Aberrations for Displaced Stop Aberrations for Multisurface Systems Curvature of Field Aberrations for Decentered Pupil Concluding Remarks 109 Appendix A: Comparison with Seidel Theory 110 References 111 Bibliography 111 Chapter 6 Reflecting Telescopes Paraboloid Two-Mirror Telescopes Alignment Errors in Two-Mirror Telescopes Three-Mirror Telescopes Four-Mirror Telescopes Concluding Remarks 161 References 162 Bibliography 162 Chapter 7 Schmidt Telescopes and Cameras General Schmidt Configuration Characteristics of Aspheric Plate Schmidt Telescope Example Achromatic Schmidt Telescope 177

Contents IX 7.5. Solid- and Semisolid-Schmidt Cameras 181 References 184 Bibliography 184 Chapter 8 Catadioptric Telescopes and Cameras 185 8.1. Schmidt-Cassegrain Telescopes 185 8.2.

4 Contents IX 7.5. Solid- and Semisolid-Schmidt Cameras 181 References 184 Bibliography 184 Chapter 8 Catadioptric Telescopes and Cameras Schmidt-Cassegrain Telescopes Cameras with Meniscus Correctors All-Reflecting Wide-Field Systems 204 References 205 Chapter 9 Auxiliary Optics for Telescopes Field Lenses, Flatteners Prime Focus Correctors Cassegrain Focus Correctors Cassegrain Focal Reducers Atmospheric Dispersion Correctors Fiber Optics 237 References 239 Bibliography 239 Chapter 10 Diffraction Theory and Aberrations Huygens-Fresnel Principle Perfect Image: Circular Aperture The Near Perfect Image Comparison: Geometric Aberrations and the Diffraction Limit Diffraction Integrals and Fourier Theory 271 References 275 Bibliography 275 Chapter 11 Transfer Functions; Hubble Space Telescope Transfer Functions and Image Characteristics Hubble Space Telescope, Prelaunch Expectations Hubble Space Telescope, Postlaunch Reality Concluding Remarks 302 References 303 Bibliography 303 Chapter 12 Spectrometry: Definitions and Basic Principles Introduction and Definitions Slit Spectrometers 308

$Spectrometers in Diffraction Limit 318 References 320 Bibliography 320 Chapter 13 Dispersing Elements and Systems 321 13.1. Dispersing Prism 321 13.2. Diffraction Grating; Basic Relations 323 13.3. Echelles 327 13.$

5 X Contents Fiber-Fed Spectrometers Slitless Spectrometers Spectrometers in Diffraction Limit 318 References 320 Bibliography 320 Chapter 13 Dispersing Elements and Systems Dispersing Prism Diffraction Grating; Basic Relations Echelles Grating Efficiency Fabry-Perot Interferometer Fourier Transform Spectrometer Concluding Remarks 350 References 350 Bibliography 350 Chapter 14 Grating Aberrations; Concave Grating Spectrometers Application of Fermat's Principle to Grating Surface Grating Aberrations Concave Grating Mountings 362 References 367 Bibliography 367 Chapter 15 Plane Grating Spectrometers All-Reflecting Spectrometers Pixel Matching Fast Spectrometers Fiber-Fed Spectrometers Echelle Spectrometers Nonobjective Slitless Spectrometers Concluding Remarks 407 References 407 Bibliography 407 Chapter 16 Adaptive Optics: An Introduction Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence Correction of Wavefront Distortion Adaptive Optics: Systems and Components Concluding Remarks 423 References 424 Bibliography 424

Contents XI Chapter 17 Detectors, Signal-to-Noise, and Detection Limits 425 17.1. Detector Characteristics 426 17.2. Signal-to-Noise Ratio 433 17.3. Detection Limits and Signal-to-Noise Ratio 435 17.

6 Contents XI Chapter 17 Detectors, Signal-to-Noise, and Detection Limits Detector Characteristics Signal-to-Noise Ratio Detection Limits and Signal-to-Noise Ratio Detection Limits: Stellar Photometry Detection Limits: Spectroscopy 440 References 443 Bibliography 443 Chapter 18 Large Mirrors and Telescope Arrays Large Mirrors Telescope Arrays; Interferometers 451 References 457 Bibliography 457 Table of Symbols 459 Index 467

PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL OPTICS

PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL OPTICS C. A. Bennett University of North Carolina At Asheville WILEY- INTERSCIENCE A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION CONTENTS Preface 1 The Physics of Waves 1 1.1 Introduction