Primordial Planet Formation

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1 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, PrimordialPlanetFormation RudolphE.Schild 1,2 1CenterforAstrophysics,60GardenStreet,Cambridge,MA02138,USA 2rschild@cfa.harvard.edu and CarlH.Gibson 3,4 3 UniversityofCaliforniaSanDiego,LaJolla,CA ,USA 4cgibson@ucsd.edu, ABSTRACT Recentspacecraftobservationsexploringsolarsystempropertiesimpactstandard paradigmsoftheformationofstars,planetsandcomets.westresstheunexpected cloudofmicroscopicdustresultingfromthedeepimpactmission,andthe existenceofmoltennodulesinstardustsamples.andthetheoryofstar formationdoesnotexplainthecommonoccurrenceofbinaryandmultiplestar systemsinthestandardgasfragmentationscenario.nocurrenttheoryofplanet formationcanexplaintheironcoreoftheearth,underoceansofwater. Thesedifficultiesareavoidedinascenariowheretheplanetmassobjectsform primordiallyandaretodaythebaryonicdarkmatter.theyhavebeendetectedin quasarmicrolensingandanomalousquasarradiobrighteningbursts.the primordialplanetsoftenconcentratetogethertoformastar,withresidualmatter seeninpre stellaraccretiondiscsaroundtheyoungeststars. Theseprimordialplanetmassbodieswereformedofhydrogen helium,aggregated indenseclumpsofatrillionatthetimeofplasmaneutralization380,000yearsafter thebigbang.mosthavebeenfrozenandinvisible,butarenowmanifesting themselvesinnumerouswaysassensitivemodernspacetelescopesbecome operational.theirkeydetectionsignatureistheirthermalemissionspectrum,

2 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, peggedatthe13.8degreeskelvintriplepointofhydrogen,thebaryonicdarkmatter (Staplefeldtetal.1999). Keywords:DarkMatter;PlanetFormation:Cosmicstructure 1.Introduction Recentdiscoveriesofnumerousplanetsseenorbitingordinarystarsinthelocal universecaughtsome,butnotall,astronomersbysurprise.thecommonview amongprofessionals,sharedwiththegeneralpublic,wasthatallsuchplanetswere formedindustdiscsofthestarasitformedandwerecausedbythestarformation. Planetswereseenorbitinginflatdiscsaroundtheseveralstarswithnear perfect edge wiseorientationtothehumanobserver,manylargeandclosetothestar.an alternativeview(gibson,1996)claimedallthehot,primordial,h 4 Hegasemerging fromtheplasmaepochtransitiontogaswouldfragmentunderviscous gravitational controltoformplanetary massgascloudsindenseclumpsofatrillion.ratherthan planetsformingfromstars,allstarsshouldformfromtheseprimordialgasplanets withintheirprotostarclusterclumps. Ithasbeenlongrecognizedthatmostoftheordinarymatter protons,neutrons, andelectronsaswellastheatomstheyconstitute,areunseenandthereforewere calledbaryonicdarkmatter.butalthoughdarktomostobservations,thematerial hadagravitationalsignaturefromwhichitwasunderstoodtobepresentinlarge amountsinthehaloofourmilkywaygalaxy.soitwasconcludedthatifithasa gravitationalsignatureitshouldbepossibletousethelightbendingpropertiesof masstodetectthedarkmatterasgravitationallenses. Thisideareceivedastrongboostwhenstudiesofthegravityassociatedwithlensing galaxiesseenalongthepathstomultiplyimagedquasarsgaveadirectdetectionof thegrainytextureofthelensinggravity,demonstratingthatthemassofthelensing galaxyisdominatedbyobjectswithapproximatelythemassoftheearth,withstars

3 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, makingonlyaminorcontribution(schild,1996).themasscouldbeestimated becausethedurationofeventswasquiteshort,approximatelyaday.themost extremeeventfoundhadanobserveddurationofonly12hours,which,becauseof thecosmologicalexpansionoftime,correspondedtoatimeofonly5hours referencedtotheclockofanobserverattheluminousquasar(colleyandschild, 2003).Eventscausedbyamicrolensingstarshouldhave30 yearduration (SchildandVakulik,2005)andthefrequentlyobservedmicrolensingsignalin Q mustbecausedbyaplanetaryobjectwithamillionthofasolarmass. Suchrapideventsrepresentedaremarkablefeatofnature.Recallthataquasarhas 100timestheluminosityofanordinarygalaxylikeourownMilkyWay,andthe observed5 hourbrighteningandfadingeventseenasa1%brightnesschangethus representssomebodyeffectivelythrowingaswitchandalltheluminosityequivalent tothebillionsofstarsinadistantgalaxybeingswitchedonandoffin21/2hours. Thisisnotreallywhathappens,ofcourse.Itisatrickofnatureoperatingthrough theeinsteingeneraltheoryofrelativity,wherebythegravitationalfieldofaplanet massbodycomesperfectlyintothelineofsighttothedistantquasar,andthe gravitationalfielddeflectsthequasarbrightnesstoadifferentdirection,producinga brightnessfadingtosomeotherobserversatsomeotherplaces.soalthoughitwas understoodthattheobservationofa5 hourmicrolensingeventevidenceda multitudeoffree roamingplanetsinthelensinggalaxyataredshiftof0.37,called rogueplanets,theywereinacosmologicallyremotegalaxyandnotamenableto closestudybydirectobservation.ratherthaneightplanetsperstarobservedinthe solarsystemthequasarmicrolensingresultrequiresanaverageofmanymillions. Itwasdesirabletofindsuchobjectsclosertohomewheretheycouldbestudied individually,andsearchesclosertohome,inthehaloofourgalaxywheretheyhad alreadybeenseeninaggregatestabilizingtherotationstructure,butunfortunately mostsearchesorganizedassumedastellarmass,andthegravitationalsignature wasthereforenotfound.(alcock,c.etal.1998).evenastherapidbrightness

4 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, fluctuationscorrespondingtolightbendingfromplanetmassobjectswerebeing recognizedinmorelensedquasars,thehalosearchescontinuedtodisappoint.this waslargelybecauseitwasbeingassumedthatthedarkmatterwouldbeuniformly distributedinspace,contrarytothecommonobservationthatstarstendtocluster onallsizescales,fromdoublestarstostarclusterstogalaxiesandtheirclusters. Thedecisiveobservationalcluecamewithatechnologicaldevelopment,when detectorscapableofmeasuringthefeebleradiationofanyobjectevenslightlyabove thatabsolutezerooftemperaturewerefittedtoballoon borneandorbiting telescopes.alreadyin1985theirasspacecrafthaddetectedafeeblesignature understoodtobecomingfromalldirectionsbutunfortunatelycalled"cirrusdust" cloudsbecauseofthewaytheradiationseemedtobeamottleddistributionabove andbelowthegalaxy'sdisc(lowetal,1984).onlywhenmorerecentgenerations ofinfraredandsub millimeterdetectorshadbeendevelopedcouldthetruenature ofthefeeblesignaturebeunderstood. Thishappenedsuddenlywhenmapsoftheskytakenbydifferentspacecraft(COBE, IRAS,Boomerang,WMAP)operatinginthesamedirectiontowardtheHalowere intercompared(venizianaetal.2010)andthesamestructuresseen.becausethe differentspacecraftdetecteddifferentwavelengths,theinter comparisonallowed thetemperatureofthefeeblestructurestobemeasured,thoughatfirststillthought tobetheinfraredradiatingdustclouds.onlywhenitwasrecognizedthatthe temperaturewasbeingconsistentlyfoundtobethesameforalldirectionscouldthe natureofthe"infraredcirrus"becorrectlyinferred(nieuwenhuizenetal.2010). Figure1(Gibson2010Fig.1)showssomeoftheVenizianietal.(2010)evidence, comparedtoourinterpretationthatthe dust ofthe cirrusclouds isactually primordialplanetsintheirprotoglobularstarclusterpgcclumps.thesizeofthe observedclumps4x10 17 meterscloselymatchesthesizeofaglobularstarcluster.

5 Journal of Cosmology, Lorentz Center Workshop Proceedings, Sept. 27 Oct. 1, Fig. 1. Oval at left top is an image of so called cirrus dust clouds of the Milky Way Galaxy (Veniziani et al. 2010, Fig. 2) at DIRBE microwave wavelength 240 µ compared to three other microwave images at the bottom showing the same features. The dust temperatures match the freezing to boiling point thermostat range of ~ K for hydrogen planets, therefore indicated as the dust. Thus cirrus dust clouds are Giant Molecular Clouds (right center), presently interpreted as clumps of planet clump PGCs representing the Galaxy dark matter. The dark matter is obscured for optical wavelengths < 1 µ as shown (right top) for a star or stars obscured by an Oort cloud of microscopic PAH dust produced as planets are accreted and evaporated. It is easy to see from Fig. 1 that the cirrus dust clouds are the Galaxy dark matter simply by estimating the number of PGC clumps of primordial planets from the images, realizing that each protoglobularstarcluster PGC clump represents a dark matter mass of more than a million stars. Comparing the DIRBE 240 µm image with the Herschel Sgr B2 image of a dense molecular cloud, we infer an average PGC density on the sky of about 20 PGCs per square degree. Since there are 38,800 square degrees on the sky, and since each PGC has mass ~ 1036 kg, we estimate the cirrus cloud mass to be ~ 1042 kg, as expected if the dust of the clouds is primordial planets and the clouds are PGC clumps.

6 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, DetectionofµBDplanetaryobjectsfromtemperaturehappenedbecausethe temperaturefoundwasanimportantoneinthephysicalchemistryofhydrogen,the mostcommonelementintheuniverseandthemostprobablecandidateforthe ordinarydarkmatter.hydrogenisagasthatcondensestoliquidandthenforms solidiceatlowtemperatures.ithaslargelatentheatsofevaporationandfusion,so athermostattemperaturerangebetweenthetriplepointtemperatureandcritical temperatureisthesignatureofacloudofgasplanetscooledbyouterspaceand heatedbyadjacentstarsandfriction.arangeofcloudtemperaturesbetweenthe triplepointandcriticalpointmatchesarangeofplanetarymassesindarkmatter planetcloudseithercooledbyouterspaceorheatedbyadjacentstars.thusifwe imagineaprimordialplanetaryatmosphereslowlycoolingbyradiatingintospace,it willremainatitstriplepointtemperatureforalongtimeasthehydrogengas condensestohydrogensnowandtheheatofcondensationslowlyradiatesaway, producingathermalsignaturepeggedatthetriplepointtemperatureasobserved. Fig.2.Vaporpressureofgas liquidh 2betweenitsgas liquid solidtriplepointandgas liquidcritical point.thelargelatentheatofh 2evaporationthermostatsPGCdarkmatterplanetcloudstoa 14 30Ktriplepoint criticalpointtemperaturerange. Thehydrogengastriplepointtemperatureis13.8degreesKelvin.Thetemperature inferredfromtheintercomparisonofspacecraftobservations(venezianietal,

7 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, )wasinferredtobe15 20Kwithsmallvariationbetweentheobserved structures,aboutasexpected.thustheradiatingmassinthehaloofourgalaxycan beinferredtobepredominantlycloudsoffrozenhydrogenplanets,particularly becausenobodyhadeverpredictedthat"infraredcirrus"composedofinterstellar dustgrainswouldhavethisuniversallymeasuredtemperature.fromfig.2,frozen hydrogenonmicroscopicdustgrainsinavacuumwouldrapidlyevaporate. Whenthiswasrealized,itwasimmediatelyobviouswhytemperaturesmeasured forhalosofothergalaxies(goingbacktoprice,duric,&duncan,1994withmany similardeterminationssince)alsowereapproximately15degreeskelvin.thusitis nowapparentthatawayexiststodetecttheordinarydarkmatteranywhereit aggregatesinthecoldvastnessofspace,andthiswillprovideanimportanttoolto studythedarkmatterstructuresformedingalaxycollisionsandingalaxyclumps, fromitsthermalemission.thesetemperaturedeterminationsarenowcommon fromplanckandherschelspacecraftdata. Itisimportanttoaskthisquestion.Ifthesehydrogencloudsareinfacttheouter atmospheresofprimordialplanetsthataretheuniversalordinarydarkmatter,at whattimeafterthebigbang(atwhatredshift)didtheycoolbelowthehydrogen triplepointtemperature?recallthatwhentheprimordialplanetclumpstructures seentodayformedatthetimewhentheuniversehadatemperaturenear4000kso thattheexpandingplasmahadanimportantviscositydecrease380,000yearsafter thebigbang,freeingthegastofragmentintotheplanet massstructuresthatwould havebeencoolingeversince.contractionwouldhavere heatedtheircenters, whencemonotoniccoolingmusthaveoccurred,evenasthebackgroundofremnant bigbangradiationwoulditselfhavebeenmonotonicallycooling,andismeasured todaytobe2.73k.atsomepointthebackgroundtemperaturemusthavepassed throughthe13.8degreehydrogentriplepoint,andtheprimordialplanetaryobjects wouldhavebeguntofreezeouthydrogentobecomehydrogenicewhichwould havethensnoweddownthroughtheatmospherestotheplanetarysurfaces.wewill considerbelowhowthisproduceddramaticweathereffectsontheprimordial

8 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, planets,butwewishheretodiscusswhattheeffectsoftheshrinkingsnowing atmosphereswouldhavehadontheuv opticallighttransmissionoftheuniverse. Giventhepresenttemperatureoftheuniverseandtheratethetemperaturefalls withredshift,weeasilycalculatethattheremnantbigbangradiationandhencethe temperatureoftheuniversefellbelowthe13.8degreehydrogentriplepoint temperatureatredshiftz=6.0.ithasalreadybeennoticedthatdistantquasars evidenceadramaticchangeinthetransparencyoftheuniversetohydrogen sensitivewavelengthsatredshiftsofapproximately6.3(fanetal,2006).presently thisisattributedtoa"re ionization"ofthehydrogengasoftheobservableuniverse atthisredshift,butwithnoexplanationofexactlywhyattheparticularobserved redshiftof6.3.inparticular,therehadbeennopredictionthatthetransmissionof theuniversewouldhavedramaticallyincreasedatz=6.3.thepossibilitythatthe transparencyoftheuniverseshouldbesignificantlyaffectedbytheatmospheresof apopulationofprimordialplanetcloudshasalreadybeenconsideredbyschildand Dekker(2006). Wepredictthatifthehydrogentransparencyincreaseoftheuniverseisdueto shrinkingprimordialplanetatmospheres,otherobservationalmanifestations shouldbediscovered.forexample,theshrunkenplanetswouldhavelowercross sectionsforcollisionswithimplicationsforchangesintheircollisionaldynamics, increasingdiffusionofthepgcplanetcloudsfromthegalaxycentralcoretoform thegalaxydarkmatterhalo.withsuddenlysmalleratmospherestherewouldbe fewerplanetcollisionsandofeketal.(2010)eventsasthestarformationrate decreases.insomewaysitcanbeseenthatthecoolingoftheuniversebelowthe hydrogentriplepointrepresentsaphasechange,whichwillhaveimplicationsfor therateofaggregationintostarsandintheircollisionalinteractionsignatures (Nieuwenhuizenetal.2010).

9 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, DetectionofPrimordialPlanets Asthepopulationofprimordialplanetshasbeenevolvingthroughoutthehistoryof theuniverse,theirdetectionwillbecomplicatedaccordingtotheredshiftbeing probed.inthelocaluniverse,weseetheobjectsinexperimentsrelatedto microlensingofquasars,whereadistantquasarataredshiftofapproximately2is seenalignedwithaforegroundgalaxyatatypicalredshiftbelow1.astheglobal gravitationalfieldofthelensingforegroundgalaxycreatesmultipleimagesofthe distantquasar,theindividualobjectswithinthelensinggalaxyinlinewiththe backgroundquasarcanmodifythequasarlightfurther.thiscreatedsignaturesof anymassbodiesinthelensinggalaxy,andsignaturesofstars(schild&smith, 1991).Planets(Schild1996),andstarclusters(MaoandSchneider,1998)have beenrecognized. Hereweareparticularlyinterestedintheplanetsignatures.Becauseofthesmall briefstructurescausedbyquasar planetaryalignments,theplanetsignaturesare discussedunderthetopicofmicrolensing,orevennanolensing,andthefirst demonstrationofthephenomenonoperatingatplanetaryscalebyschild(1996)in quasarq wasquicklyfollowedbydiscoveriesinothergravitationallens quasarsystems.inq2237(vakuliketal.2007),amicrolensingeventfroma0.001 MSunfree roaming(jupitermass)planetwasfound.systems0b ,(90day microlensing,0.0001msun(burudetal,2000),rxj0911.4,90days,0.0001msun (Hjorthetal,2002),FBQ0951(Jakobsson,etal,2005,SBS1520andFBQ0951(90 day,0.0001to0.0001msun(paraficzetal,2006)producedsimilardetections. Byfarthebestbrightnessmonitoringdatarevealingthemicrolensingsignatureis fromthefirstdiscoveredandlongestmonitoredsystem,q thisis becauseithasthebest determinedtimedelay,accurateto0.1day(colleyetal, 2003).Recallthatthequasarmicrolensingisrevealedbycomparingtwoimagesof amultiplyimagedquasarandcorrectingforthedelaybetweenarrivalofthe multipleimages.theonlyquasarwithdelaymeasuredtosuch0.1dayprecisionis

10 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, Q ,followinganintensemonitoringeffortbyaninternationalconsortium (Colleyetal.2003).ThisallowedColleyandSchild(2003)tosecurelydetectan eventwitha12 hourtotalduration,themostrapideverdetected.awavelet analysisofthelongerbrightnessrecordinthisquasarlenssystemdemonstrated severalhundredmicrolensingevents(schild1999). Butbecausethesewereallplanetmassbodiesseeninremotegalaxies,itwas desirabletodetecttheobjectsinthehaloofourowngalaxy.unfortunatelythe resultsof2researchconsortiathatsoughttheprimordialplanetsignalfailedin spiteofmonitoring7millionstarsinthelargemagellaniccloudforthe microlensingsignature.whilepublishedaccountsmaketheclaimthattheobjects donotexistandignorethemanydetectionsinthequasarlenssystems,itiseasyto understandthatthelocalfailuresresultfromsystematicerrorsofassumptions,like theassumptionthatthehydrogenatmospherewouldbetoosmalltocause refraction,ortheassumptionsaboutthesizesofthestarsmonitored.microlensing consortia(macho,eros,ogleetc.)havemadethefatalassumptionthatthe planetaryobjectstheyclaimtoexcludeareuniformlydistributed:notclumpedand clusteredasobservedinfig.1.thus,theyhaveexcludednothing.new observationsareplannedfocusingonstarswithforegroundplanetclouds. 3.WeatheronHeatingandCoolingPrimordialPlanets Althoughhalosearchescouldnotfindthefree roamingplanetmassbodies,many havesincebeenfoundinstarformationregionsinthevicinityofthesun(lucaset al,2006;marshetal,2010,zapateroosario,2002).theywouldonlybefoundin youngstar formingregionsbecauseaftertheircompressionalheatingtheyquickly coolandbecomenolongervisible.theirpresentpropertiesoftemperature, spectrum,color,andluminosityhavebeenmeasuredandmassesinferredtobe planetaryfrommodelfitting.objectssorecentlyformedhavenormalsolarmetal compositions,unliketheprimordialobjectsingeneral.

11 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, Manyoftheweathereffectsexpectedontheprimordialplanetswouldberelatedto weatherphenomenaknownonearthandonothersolarsystemplanets.onearth, latentheatsoffusionandevaporizationofwaterratherthanhydrogenare importantweatherdrivers,causinglocalheatingofgasmasses(clouds)andstrong verticalmotions.freezingpointtemperaturesofwatericeareclearincloudswhere rainandhailareformed.horizontalwindsareproducedwhenatmosphericgases replacetheverticalconvectiveelements.theconvectingelementsareinternally heatedbylatentheatoffusionandvaporization,andbecomedrivenoutoflocal thermalequilibrium,furtherdrivingweatherphenomena. Imagesofprimordialplanetatmospheresformedbystarheatingareavailablefrom spacetelescopes.figure3showsimagesofprimordialplanetsevaporatedneara whitedwarfstarinournearestplanetarynebulahelix. OortcavitiesareformedwithinPGCclumpsofplanetsbythestarformationprocess ofaccretingplanets.asshowninfig.3,theoortcavitysizeis(mstar/ρpgc) 1/3 ~ 3x10 15 m,wheremstar~1.5x10 30 kgisthemassofthestarformedandρpgcisthe densityofpgcplanetclumps~4x10 17 kg/m 3.BiologicalPAHdustfromthe evaporatedplanetsfillsthecavity,asseenbythespitzerinfraredspacetelescope image(bottomright).smallersolarsystemscalesareshownforcomparison (bottomleft).matsuuraetal.(2009)showhydrogenresonantimagesthatreveal primordialplanetsandtheirwakesaswellasplanetproto cometsontheirwayto accretionthatareinvisibleintheopticalbandhubblespacetelescopeimage.the planetsejectedbytheplasmajetmustrefreezewhentheyreachdistancesof~10 16 mfromthecentralstarandbeginradiationtoouterspace.

12 Journal of Cosmology, Lorentz Center Workshop Proceedings, Sept. 27 Oct. 1, Fig. 3. Primordial planets heated and cooled in nearby planetary nebula Helix. A central white dwarf star is overfed by accreting primordial planets so that it contracts to high density ~ 1010 kg/m3 and its spin rate increases. A powerful plasma jet (blue arrow top) is produced that evaporates and radially expels some planets bounding the Oort Cavity. Some continue to fall into the cavity as comets (top image for a 2.4 µ infrared H2 resonance). New classes of weather are expected for the heated and cooled primordial planets of Fig. 3. Terrestrial weather is largely driven by direct heating of the Earth atmosphere and surface due to the absorption of sunlight, and the earth core is being heated from tidal forces. The primordial planets, in contrast, monotonically cool over the history of the universe, with external heating when stars are formed nearby. Furthermore the hydrogen atmospheres will initially extend far beyond the solid cores, where the Earth has lost most of its atmospheric gases, particularly

13 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, hydrogen,andthepresentearthatmosphereextendsonlyasmallfractionaboveits solid coreradius. Thiswillcreatethepotentialformuchlargervelocitiesandmoreviolent atmosphericeffects.werecallthattheescapevelocityonearthis11km/sec.thus infallingmeteorsandmeteoriteswillhavethisvelocityplusan"inter solarsystem orbitalvelocity"oforder50km/sec.dissipationofthekineticenergyofthese interloperswillcauselocalheatingeffectsintheatmosphereandproducelocally highwinds. Terrestrialfallingsnowislimitedtoterminalvelocityspeeddominatedby atmosphericfriction.fortheprimordialplanetstherewouldpresumablybea strongradialcenter to edgetemperatureanddensitygradient,andhydrogenice wouldordinarilyformatthetopofthelargeatmosphere.fallinghydrogenice shouldaccumulateandcreatesnowballsofunknownsizeanddensitycontrastover theirlongjourneytothesurface,perhapsevenbecomingcrystallineand comparabletohailstones,withpotentialforlargervelocitieslimitedtotheescape velocity,butperhapslimitedtothelocalsoundspeed. Recallthatobservationsofsolarsystemcometsseemtoshowsurfacesof compressedicysolidsandpowderydust(kearsleyetal.2008).meandensitiesof cometsareapproximatelyaquarterofterrestrialcrystallinerockdensities, suggestingapowderyconsistencythroughout.thissuggeststhatthesurfacesof OortCloudcometswereformedatthetimeofformationofthesun,inhydrogenice snowstorms. ModernobservationsofKuiperbeltandOortcloudobjectsallowsizestobe measured,andmeandensitiestobeinferredincasesofbinaryobjects.withthe understandingthattheseoutersolarsystemobjectshadaprimordialorigin,where acontractinghydrogenclouddevelopedaheatedcenterthatwashotterforlarger objects,itispossibletomakeapredictionaboutmeasureddensitiesasafunctionof

14 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, totalmass.inthispicturethemostmassiveobjectshadthehottestcoreandthe largesthydrogenenvelope,sotheyremainedlongestwithelevatedtemperatures andattractedthemostdustwhichwouldmeltatthecentralcore.subsequentslow evaporationofhydrogenwouldhaveleftrelativelymoretimetoaddtothecentral coreofmoltenstratifieddust.andsincethepresentdaycoolobjecthasarelatively largerfractionofmetalsinsolidifiedcrystallinematerial,theheavyremnantswill haveahighermeandensitythanthelighterremnants,whichaccumulatedmore dustonthesurfacewhereitremainedamoreporousdustlayer. Thesespeculationsareonlyintendedtoremindthatstrongweatherforceswouldbe expectedwheretheprimordialplanetshavepotentiallylargeratmospheresanda potentiallylargeoveralltemperaturegradient.withstrongforcespotentiallyin play,stratifiedturbulenceisalsolikely,aswillbediscussedinacompanionreport focusedupontheanalysisofatmosphericforcesanduniversalsimilarities.avariety ofstratifiedturbulenceandturbulentmixingsignatureswithintheplanetcluster containingthesunhavebeenidentifiedfromradiotelescopesignals(gibson2010). 4.Whenandhowdidplanetsform? ThetraditionalviewoftheformationoftheEarthandallplanetsseenorbitingstars isthatformationbeganinpre stellardiscsaroundnewlyformingstars.theonly ingredientspresumedavailablearemicroscopicinterstellardustparticles,plus primordialgasesdominatedbyhydrogen.thisissupposedtooccurwithin"cores" oflargegascloudshavingsufficientmasstomakehundredsorthousandsofstars. Howeverthereispresentlynotheoryofwherethegascloudscamefrominthefirst place,andtheprocessbywhichcoresformisnotunderstood,sinceitisbelieved thatthepredominantlyhydrogengascannotcoolrapidlyenoughtoprevent compressionalheatinggeneratingpressurethatwouldre expandthecloudcore. Recentdevelopmentsinunderstandingofhydrodynamicalforcesontheexpanding BigBanggaswithdissipativeviscousforcesproduceaverydifferentpicture

15 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, (Gibson,C.&Schild,R.2003).Withinlow10 5 densityenhancementsstructure formedbythecondensation voidseparationprocessonmassscalesofgalaxiesto galaxyclustersbeforerecombination.atplasmaneutralization,380,000yearsafter thebigbang,theentirebaryonicmattercontentoftheuniverseunderwentavery largedecreaseinviscosity,freeingupthegastofurthercondenseonmassscalesof planets(primordial fog particles,pfps,inthediscoveryreferencegibson1996)and ofclustermassaggregateswith10 6 MSun.Noticethatthisproducesahierarchical clumpingofmassonscalesofplanetswithinclusterswithingalaxieswithinclusters ofgalaxies.butinparticular,nostarsformedprimordiallywithinthisframework. Inthispicture,thenewlyformedstructuresinquiescentuniversalexpansionwould developsmallrandommotions,andastheprocessofseparationandcondensation wasunderwaylocally,someoftheclusterscaleperturbationswouldhave interacted,jostlingthecontainedprimordialplanetsandcausingsometocollideand sticktogether,initiatingpairingofpairsofpairsetc.forabottoms upaggregation thatresultedfinallyinastructuremassiveenoughthatcentraltemperatures climbedabovethefusiontemperatureanddensity,andastarbegantoshine. Statisticsdescribingtheubiquityofpresentlyobservedorbitingdouble/multiple starsandbinarykuiperbeltobjectsresultfromthispairwiseaggregatingprocess. Theubiquityofdynamicallydoubleandmultiplegravitatingsystems(Kern&Elliot, 2006)defythesimplisticgasfragmentationhypothesisofstarandplanetformation. Atthetimeofformation,380,000yearsafterthebigbang,theprimordialplanets wouldhavebeenpredominantlyhydrogengasspheres,witharadiuscomparableto theseparationdistanceof10 14 m.sincethentheywouldhavegraduallycooledand shrunk.wheretheseobjectsareseennearwhitedwarfsinplanetarynebulaeofthe localuniverselikethecentralstarofhelix(fig.3)theyarecalled"cometaryknots". Theplanetatmospheresareofsize10 13 m(meaburnetal,1992),whichis100a.u. Recallthatamillionofthesehadtoaggregatetoformthesun,whichiscompatible withtheknowndiameterandvolumeoftheoortcloud.suchlargeobjectswould havesweptuptheinterstellarmediumofthegalaxydiscandhalo(schild2007)so

16 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, theinitialhydrogencompositionwouldevolvetohighermetalrichnessinparallel withthestellarpopulationofthegalaxy. Thecollectionofinterstellardustbythismechanismcansolveseveralproblemsin theplanetformationscenario.recallthatthestandardpicturerequiresdustgrains tocollideandsticktogether,whencethelargergrainsalsocollideandeventually aggregateasplanetmassbodies.theproblemisthatthisprocessofcollidingand stickingmustbehighlyefficientforallmassscales,dusttopebblestobouldersto mountainstoplanets,sinceifitfailsforanymassscale,theentireprocessbreaks down.butcollidingrockstogetheralwaysproducessimplerecoilorfracturing.in thehistoryofourcivilization,nobodyhasreportedtworockscollidingtogetherand sticking.thispointwillbefurtherdiscussedinthefollowingsection. 5.IroncoresofPlanets Thetheoryoftheformationoftheplanetsisconfoundedbytwoobservationalfacts. Thewidelyacceptedtheoryconsidersthatplanetswereformedinpre stellardiscs thatcanbeseenastheequatorialplaneofseveralnearbystarswithfavorable orientation.suchdiscscanbefoundfrominfraredsignaturesinyoungstarforming regions,andareknowntodissipateanddisappearontimescalesof5millionyears (Currieetal.2010). Howeverthemechanismbywhichtheplanetsformwithinthediscisproblematic.It ispostulatedthatdustgrainsofoxidesofironandsiliconetcfoundininterstellar spacecollideandsticktogether,producinglargergrainsthatcollideandstick,inan accretionalcascadethateventuallyproducesplanets. Thereisaseriousproblemwiththisscenario.Theexperimenthasbeendone billionsoftimesinourcivilization,androckscollidingwithrockshaveneverbeen observedtosticktogether;theyalwaysrecoilorbreakup.buttheprocessmust workefficientlyforallsizesofcollidingrocksfrominterstellardustgrainstostones

17 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, torocksandmountains,ortheprocessbreaksdown.suchanaccretionalcascade seemsimpossible. Attemptstocreatetheprocessinalaboratoryhavefailed,asexpected.These experimentshavebeensummarizedbyblumandwurm(2008).ittakesacareful readingtounderstandthatthe"porosityindex"quoted,consistentlyshowsthatthe marginallystickingfragmentsarenotheldtogetherbycrystallineforces,butrather bymuchweakervanderwaalsforces,andinareferencecitedas"schraeplerand Wurm,unpublisheddata"itisnotedthatasingleballisticinboundparticlebreaks uptheweaklyboundchainsandclumps,andtheprocessbreaksdown. Thisproblemissidesteppediftheplanetsareformedinatwo stepprocess,withthe firststepoccurringafterplasmaneutralizationandthesecondinthepre stellar accretiondiscsaroundyoungformingstars.inthefirststep,whichoccurredinthe longhistoryfollowingplasmaneutralizationatz=1000untilapproximatelyz=1 whenthesunformed,theprimordialrogueplanetsroamedthehaloofthegalaxy andtheirlargehydrogenatmospheressweptupalltheinterstellardustdistributed bysupernovaeandbycarbonstars(schild,2007).thedustgrainsmeteoredinto thehydrogenatmospheresandcollectedatthecentersbecauseoftheirmetallic densities.later,intheprestellardiscphase,stronginteractionscausedthemtoshed theirhydrogenatmospherestocreatethesun,andfurthercollisionsamongthem modifiedthepopulationfurther,includingremovaloftheresidualhydrogenby evaporation. AsecondimportantproblemofplanetformationistheironcoreoftheEarth. Anyoneseeingrustinghulksofjunkedautomobilesknowsthatironhasastrong propensitytooxidize,andeverysteel makerknowshowdifficultitistoreduceiron oxidetobasemetal;itisdoneinhightemperatureblastfurnacesinthepresenceof hotreducingcarbonmonoxide.

18 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, Themetallicionsininterstellardustarealwaysfoundasoxides,sowhenandwhere intheuniversewasthisprocessedtobecomeironcoresofplanetssurmountedby oceansofwater?thiswouldnaturallyhavehappenedwhenthembdpopulationof planetmassobjectswithverylargehydrogenatmospheresroamedtheuniverseand sweptcleantheinterstellarmedium.interstellardustgrainswouldhavemeteored intotheextendedcoolinghydrogenatmospheresandvaporized.thehydrogenis knowntoreduceanymetaltoformwaterwhichprecipitatesout,andthedense metallicvaporssettledtothembdcentertostratifywithallothermetallicions accordingtodensity,beneathanoceanofwater. Theseeventswouldhavebeenmostcommonintheearlyuniverse,beforez=6 whencoolingoftheuniversebelowthehydrogentriplepointcausedthe atmospherestofreezeouthydrogenassnowandreducethesizesofthe atmospheres.athigherredshifts,6<z<1000,theplanetswouldhavehadfrequent collisionsandmergersintheiraccretionalcascadesthatsometimesproducedstars. Releaseofgravitationalbindingenergywouldhavere heatedtheprimordial planets,particularlytheirmetalliccores,andtheinitiallystratifiedreducedmetals wouldhavebeensmearedsomewhattobecometheoredepositsminedtoday. Overthedurationoftheuniverse,thenatureofplanetswouldhaveevolved.At initialformation,suchprimordialplanetswouldhavehadlargestickyatmospheres butnegligiblerelativemotioninaquiescentexpandinguniverse.thiswouldhave resultedinsomecollisionalaccretionevenbeforetheuniversehadcreatedmetals, andlocallyviolentinteractionswouldhaveproducedfurtheraccumulations, generatingamassspectrumwithalongtailtowardhighersub stellarmassesbut ultimatelyalsostellarmasses. Inthisway,thefirstgenerationPopIIIstarsformedgentlyandearlyfromhotlarge atmospheregasplanetsofalmostpurehydrogen.theirfirstgenerationof supernovae,plusthecollapsinggalaxy centralobjectssoontobecomeblackholes afterpassingthroughatemperaturerealmsufficientlyhightofusehydrogen,would

19 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, havebeenthefirstluminosityintheuniverse,whichatz=1000hadcooledbelow 4000K.WithfurtherexpansionandcoolingoftheUniverse,butalsowith accumulatinglargerrelativemotions,interactionsoftheprimordialplanetsand theirstarsgraduallyincreased. InthehydrogravitationaldynamicsHGDpictureofglobalstructureformation,the abovelocalscenarioofstarformationwouldhaveincreasinglybeenaffectedbythe eventsthatshapedtheformationandstructuresofgalaxies.overtime,suchevents wouldhaveimpressedlargerrelativevelocitiesontoprimordialplanetsandstars, increasinginteractionsandfurtheracceleratingaccretionalcascadefromplanetsto stars.inaddition,matterwasalsoclumpingfromaredshift1000onwardsonscales ofjeansclusters,andjustastheinitialinteractionsofthequiescentexpansionwere few,therewouldhavebeensomeatfirst.theresultwouldhavebeenthatafew suchclustermassobjectswouldhaveinteractedandtheviolentvelocitiesgenerated wouldhavetriggeredextensivestarformationinglobularclusters.withmatter initiallyclumpedasmbdsinjeansclusters,theinitialinteractionoftwoclusters wouldhavestronglyincreasedtheprocessofcollisionalcascade,andthefirst luminosityoftheuniversewouldhavebeendominatedbythesecollisionally interactingproto globular star clusters.thiswouldexplainwhytheprimordial globularclustershaveprofoundlydifferentstarformationhistoriesanddynamics thanthemorerecentlyformingopenclusters.withouttheprimordialformation pictureofjeansmassstructures,theoriginofglobularclustershasneverbeen understood. Subsequentstarformationintheuniversewouldhavebeenpredominantlyinthe JeansclustermasscloudsfragmentedintomBDsandtheirprimordialsub stellar cascadeproducts,whichareprincipallyobjectsoflessthanjupitermass.thisis inferredfromthefactthattherecentlydiscoveredplanetsfoundorbitingstarsin thesolarvicinityhaveasharpuppermasslimitof~10 28 kg~18mjupiter(watsonet al,2010).butwithouttheinitialstronginteractionsofthehgdstructureformation

20 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, picture,thedifferencebetweenthepresentlyformingopenclustersandtheancient globularshasneverbeenexplained. Inthepresentdaystarformationinopenclusters,starsareseencommonlyforming asdoubleandmultiplestars,wherethegasfragmentationpicturedoesnotgenerate suchmultiplesystems.inthehgdscenariowithprimordialmbdformation,the multiplestarseedsformedlongbeforearecentjolttriggeredstarformation. 6.TheHGDuniversalspectrumofmassfragmentation AsurprisingresultofthehydrogravitationaldynamicsHGDscenarioofstructure formationisthewaytheuniversedevelopsafragmentinghierarchyofstructure, withitskeyelementsarrangedinatopdownsequenceofstructuresofdecreasing massbetweenvoidsexpandingattheplasmasonicvelocitynearlightspeeds.it reflectsthecommonobservationthatgalaxiesareusuallyfoundinclustersof galaxies,globularstarclustersareingalaxies,andstarsarefoundinclusters.itis clearthatthisshouldbetrueforthehgdfragmentationalschenariosincethe instabilityofdensityminimaisenhancedbytheexpansionofspacebut condensationsonmaximaisinhibited.theoppositeisexpectedforthestandard (butfalse)λcdmscenariowheregravitationalstructuresbuildupfromsmall massestolargecontrolledby(impossible)colddarkmattercdmcondensationsand superclustersarethelastratherthanfirststructurestoform. WeshowinFigure4thepredictedviscousfragmentationmassscalesoftheplasma andgasepochs(gibson1996).thelengthscaleoffragmentationisdeterminedbya balancebetweenviscousandgravitationalforcesattheschwarzviscousscalelsv= (νγ/ρg) 1/2,whereνisthekinematicviscosity,γistherate of strainofthefluid, ρis thedensityandgisnewton sgravitationalconstant.forthefirstplasma gravitationalstructurestoform,lsvmustbecomesmallerthanthescaleofcausal connectionlh=ct,wherecisthespeedoflightandtisthetimesincethe cosmologicalbigbang.thisoccursattimet~10 12 seconds(about30,000years).

21 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, Momentumistransportedintheplasmabyphotonsthatcollidewithfreeelectrons, thatinturndragalongtheirassociatedions(protonsandalph particles).the kinematicviscosityνisestimated(gibson2000)tobe~10 26 m 2 s 1,γis~10 12 s 1 andρ~4x10 17 kgm 3.soLSV~2x10 20 m~lh=3x10 20 m.themassscaleis~10 45 kg;thatis,themassofasuperclusterof~10 3 galaxies.thedensityρremains constantinthefragmentswithtimebutthemassesofthesubsequentfragments decreasebecausebothνandγdecreaseastheuniversecoolsandexpands.the smallestplasmafragmentsaregalaxiesasshowninfig.4ontheright. Notice,however,thattheHGDstructureformationscenarioalsohasimportant consequencesforthemicrolensingdetectionofitscomponentobjects.aconcentric hierarchicalstructureboostsandincreaseonseveralscalesatthesametime. InsofarasthestudiesappearsmallerthantheirprojectedEinsteinrings,each consecutivestructureincreasesmagnification.thecompoundingofimagesbehind anetworkofrogueplanetsbehindamicrolensingstarhasalreadybeensimulated byschildandvakulik(2003),butinprinciplethefurtherlensingbyastarcluster andgalaxyneedtobeconsidered. Fig.4.Fragmentationofthebaryonicmassunderviscous gravitationalcontrol.thefirst structurestofragmentwereatsuper galaxy clustermass,whenthehorizonscaleof causalconnectionctexceededtheviscous gravitationalscalel SVintheplasmaepoch (right).atlatertimesintheplasmaepoch,lowermassconcentrationsdowntogalaxy

22 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, masswouldform(gibson1996).adramaticdecreaseinkinematicviscosityatplasma neutralizationaccountsforthedecreaseinfragmentationmassfromthatofgalaxiesto thatofplanetsinclusters. Intheplasmaepoch,galaxysuper clustersformedfirst,andsubsequentstructure formationdecreasedatplasmaneutralizationtoaminimummassscaleofgalaxies (10 42 kg)withinclusters,andwithcharacteristicδt/tamplitudeof10 5.Withthe severeviscositydroptoν~10 13 m 2 s 1 atthetimeofplasmaneutralization10 13 seconds,internalstructureformedonscalesofjeansclustersandplanets,butnot stars.thelatterwouldbeformedinanaccretionalcascadeofplanetmasshydrogen spheres,asmathematicallysimulatedbytruelove(1997)who,however,treated themas numericalinstabilities inhiscalculation.withaturbulenthydrodynamical formationscenario,itwouldbeunsurprisingifthescalesofstructureformationin theuniverse,fromgalaxysuper clusters,galaxies,starclusters,toplanets,followa self similarmathematics(oldershaw,2010). Theremainderofthissectiondescribeshowtoreasonablyunderstandthebroad rangeofsolarsystemobjectsfoundinthelocaluniverse:planets,kbo's,asteroids, comets,andmeteorites. Atthetimeofplasmaneutralization,thetemperatureoftheuniversewas~4000K andnometalsexisted.astheuniversecooled,afirstgenerationofmassivestars resultedinsupernovaenhancementoftheinterstellarmedium,andthehydrogen graduallybecamecontaminatedwithmetals.thiswouldhavehappenedonatime scaleof10millionyears(gibson,1996;gibsonandschild,2010). FromtheknownobjectsstudiedwithinourSolarSystem,weinferthatthelowest massobjectshadcooledsufficientlyattheircentersthatanyinbounddustcollected atthecenterwithoutmelting.sometransitionalobjectswouldhaveasmallmolten corewhichcooledsufficientlyquicklythatitsouterlayersnevermeltedinahot core.thestillmoremassiveobjectswouldhaveretainedamoltencorelongerand developeddensitystratifiedlayersofmineralsfromlatergenerationsof

23 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, supernovae.collisionsofthembdwouldhavere heatedthecoresand redistributedthestratifiedlayerstoformoresoftheelementsandprimary compounds.theobjectsprobablyretainedtheirextensivehydrogenenvelopes, untilinteractionsinthepre solaraccretiondiscstrippedawaythehydrogen.since themostmassivembdobjectsinthispre solarprocessingwouldhavebeenhotterif moremassive,thehgdformationpicturemakesthequalitativepredictionthatthe presentlyobservablemeandensityshouldbehighestforthemostmassivembds. AtthetimeoftheSun'sformation,amillionoftheseobjectswouldhaveaggregated asthesolarmass,leavingonlynineplanetsinapre solarnebulawithanaccretion disc.violentcollisionaleventswouldhavedumpedmostoftheobjectsintothe formingsun,ultimatelystrippingmostbodiesoftheirhydrogenandleavingthe coresintheorbitalplane. Inthepre solarnebula,alsocalledtheaccretiondiscplane,asecondperiodof structuralmodificationtookplace.collisionsbetweenpre planetarybodiescreated meteoriticmaterial,andre heatedandsmearedtheplanetaryinteriors,mixingthe metallicores,andejectingsomeofthebodiesentirely.inthisphasehigherlocal densitiesandvelocitieswouldhavestrippedallbodiesoftheirresidualhydrogen outeratmospheres,andleftnineplanets,smallmeteoriticrocks,largerasteroid fragments,andunprocessedmaterialinthedistantkuiperbeltandoortcloud. 7.SurprisesfromtheNASA'sspacemissionsSTARDUSTandDEEPIMPACT Animportantconfirmationofthe2 epochplanetformationscenarioisseeninthe quiteunexpectedresultsofthe2004stardustspacemission,inwhichdustgrains releasedbycomettempleiwerecollectedinajellthatflewbytheastronomical body(brownlee,2009).twosurprisingaspectsofthereturnedsamplespointto thesameunexpectedphysics.thechemicalcompositionofthesamples,richin CalciumAluminumInclusions,indicatedthatthechemistryoftheirformation occurredinaveryhightemperatureenvironment,sotheycouldnothaveformed wherethecomethasbeenstoredformilleniaintheoutersolarsystem.asecond

24 JournalofCosmology,LorentzCenterWorkshopProceedings,Sept.27 Oct.1, surprisewasthatthecapturedcometarymaterialwasrichinmoltenchondrules thatagainindicatedformationinahotenvironment,nottheoutersolarsystem wherecometshibernate.todayplanetaryscientistsponderhowthesolarsystem turneditselfinside out,butintheprimordialformationscenario,moreprobably thesematerialsformedwhentheprimordialplanetswerestillhotbeforelosing hydrogen,andbeforethesolarsystemformationhadbegun. AnotherNASAspacemissionwithsurprisingresultswastheDeepImpactmission tocomettemple1topropela700lbmassintothesurfaceandexaminethe resultingdustcloud(a'hearn,2009).insteadoffindingtherocksexpectedinthe debriscloud,onlyafinepowderwasfoundinthesubsurfaceejecta.this demonstratedthattheancientcomethadcollecteddustthroughoutthehistoryof theuniverse,butthedustgrainshadnotcollidedandstucktogetheraspredictedin thestandarddustcollisionmodels.thepowderydustwassofinethatitscloud saturatedthedetectorsinthespacecraft. 8.Conclusions. RecentSolarSystemspacecraftmissionshaveproducedresultsthathavetakenthe communitybysurprise.chemicalcompositionandmoltenchondruleshaveforced theconclusionthatthesystemhasbeenturnedinsideout,withnoprevious evidenceofthis.andtheexistenceoffinedustwithnorocksinoutersolarsystem bodiesdefiesthetheorythatdustgrainseasilycollideandsticktogethertoform crystallinerocks.andthelong standingproblemofhowdoestheearthcometo haveanironcoresurmountedbyanoceanofwaterhasheretoforebeen unexplained. Whilethesesweepingstatementsdescribereasonablythestateofknowledgeof solarsystemstructure,theyleavemanyunfinisheddetails.thekeypointhereis thatplanetformationwasa2 stepprocess,withprimordialrogueplanetscreating solidandsemi solidcores,andpre solardiscevolutioncreatingthepresently observedstructuresnearthesun(fig.3lowerleft).whathasnotbeentakeninto

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