NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF PRECIPITATION INDUCED BY HOT MID-OCEAN RIDGES

Transcription

1 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF PRECIPITATION INDUCED BY HOT MID-OCEAN RIDGES LARRY VARDIMAN, PH.D. ICR GRADUATE SCHOOL 1946 WOODSIDE AVE. N. SANTEE, CA 9271 KEYWORDS Cmmunity Climate Mdel, Climate, Climate Mdel, Glbal Climate Mdel, Ht Mid-cean Ridges, Hypercanes, Ice-Age, Mid-cean Ridges, Precipitatin, Ridges, Sea-surface Temperature ABSTRACT A numerical glbal circulatin mdel develped at the Natinal Center fr Atmspheric Research was used t simulate the wind and precipitatin patterns caused by a ht sea-surface temperature ver the current mid-cean ridge lcatins. In three separate simulatins the surface was maintained at 3 C, 5 C, and 7 C in a pattern similar t the mid-cean ridges. The mdel was run at each temperature cnditin fr a year f real time and the wind and precipitatin patterns studied. Climate simulatins fr the three different mid-cean ridge temperatures shwed that increased temperatures lead t increased precipitatin ver and dwnwind f the ridge, increased hrizntal wind speed in the lwer atmsphere, decreased hrizntal wind speed alft, and an increase in the frequency f upward vertical velcity ver the ridges. The rate f precipitatin exceeded 2 mm/day ver large prtins f the ridges and was up t 8 mm/day in limited areas. It was greatest ver Greenland and the Nrth Atlantic suth f Greenland. Precipitatin als extended ver prtins f the cean away frm the ridges, tward plar regins, and int cntinental areas, particularly near the equatr. Precipitatin rates and the area f cverage increased glbally as the ridge temperature was increased. The effects appear t match many f the expectatins frm the Scriptures and inferred distributins f snw and ice cverage during the Ice Age. INTRODUCTION Mid-cean ridges are significant features f the earth's crust. They frm the wrld's largest muntain chain extending fr 65, kilmeters alng the bttm f the ceans. The ridges have widths f 5 t 5 kilmeters and, in places may ccupy as much as ne-half f the ttal area f the cean flr. Prtins f this gigantic submerged muntain range rise t ver 25 meters abve the nearby flr f the deep-cean basin. The mid-cean ridges are cmpsed f thick layers f basaltic rcks which have been faulted and uplifted. These ridges f basaltic rck are lcated alng rift znes between tectnic plates and thrugh which magma flws frm the underlying asthensphere. It is cmmnly believed that the basalt in the ridges has taken up t 2 millin years t flw upward, spread laterally, and cl, frming the cean flrs. Hwever, if these features frmed rapidly during and fllwing the Genesis Fld in nly a few years, as suggested by Wise et al. [6], they wuld have transferred a large quantity f heat t the cean in the vicinity f the ridges, prducing enhanced evapratin. It is likely that this water vapr wuld have cntributed t the heavy rain described in Scripture during and immediately fllwing the Fld. In sme places where the cean temperature exceeded 5 C, gigantic hurricanes such as thse suggested by Emanuel [3] may have been generated in the atmsphere, lfting large quantities f misture int the stratsphere which wuld have precipitated ver large regins f the glbe. 595

2 This paper will reprt n an initial simulatin f precipitatin and wind fields when the sea-surface temperature is maintained at higher than nrmal levels ver the current lcatins f mid-cean ridges. The Cmmunity Climate Mdel (CCM1) develped at the Natinal Center fr Atmspheric Research (NCAR) was adapted t run n an IBM-cmpatible persnal cmputer at the Institute fr Creatin Research. The mdel uses 192 grid points in 4.5 latitude by 7.5 lngitude intervals t characterize the pressure, temperature, wind, and misture fields ver the surface f the earth. It uses 12 pressure levels in the vertical t describe the vlume f the atmsphere. CCM1 is a spectral mdel which uses grid values t define spherical functins and predict future values in time and space. The mdel is described by Williamsn et al. [5], Bath et al. [1], and Bath et al. [2]. Calculatins were dne in 15-minute increments fr ne year fr three ridge temperatures f 3, 5, and 7 C. The mdel required abut five weeks f cntinuus running time t simulate ne year f real time n a 1 MHz PC-486. The same mdel runs in abut ne week n a 166 MHz Pentium. Six f abut 5 pssible utput variables were saved every ten days fr each f the three runs. This reprt will discuss the resulting wind and precipitatin fields at the end f ne year f the simulatins. THE MID-OCEAN RIDGE Fig. 1 shws the 192 grid pints used in CCM1 n the surface f the earth and the grid pints held at elevated temperatures assciated with the mid-cean ridge. The small empty circles indicate the cmputatinal grid pints and the darkened circles the grid points ver the ridge. The lcatin f the mid-cean ridge was btained frm a published map by Heezen and Tharp [4]. Nte that the ridge runs dwn the middle f the Atlantic Ocean frm nrth f Iceland t near Antarctica. In the Suthern Ocean it circles the glbe suth f the Cape f Gd Hpe and Australia. In the suthern Pacific Ocean it turns nrthward t intersect the Nrth American Cntinent near the west cast f Mexic. In the Indian Ocean it branches nrthward t intersect the African cntinent near the muth f the Red Sea. The ridge is widest in the Suth Atlantic and Suth Pacific. Multiple grid points were used t represent the width f the ridge. In general, tw grid points were used t straddle narrw regins f the ridge and fur r mre fr wide regins. N effrt was made t vary the number f grid points as a functin f the height f the ridge r likely ht spts. Ol e e c I Ol e... II...., w;j- ~ ~.,,,, e.. e... ('>..... t e e....l LONGITUDE Figure 1 _,, Grid points used in CCM1. Darkened circles are grid pints ver the mid-cean ridge

3 PRECIPITATION PATTERNS Figs. 2-4 shw the precipitatin patterns fr ridge temperatures f 3, 5, and 7 C. It is easy t fllw the 3 C mid-cean ridge by the precipitatin patterns in Fig. 2. Mst f the precipitatin is in the range f 5 t 1 mm/day with nly ccasinal areas exceeding 2 mm/day, except in the Nrth Atlantic. Mst f the precipitatin falls ver the cean. The nly regins where precipitatin falls n the cntinents is alng the nrthern and sutheastern casts f Greenland, the nrthern casts f Eurpe and Asia, the nrtheast cast f Suth America, and the cast f Antarctica. Fr a 5 C ridge temperature the area f precipitatin with rates abve 5 mm/day apprximately dubles, as shwn in Fig. 3. Maximum values exceed 8 mm/day in the Nrth Atlantic and ver three cncentrated regins f Antarctica. The precipitatin patterns still fllw the mid-cean ridge, but the pattern is mre cmplex with areas f precipitatin extending partially int the cntinents. In additin t precipitatin alng the casts mentined fr the 3 C ridge, the pattern nw includes precipitatin alng the cast f nrthern Canada, thrugh central Asia, acrss central and eastern Africa and India, alng the cast f sutheastern Asia, acrss central Suth America and its suthern tip, and int the interir f Antarctica. Fr a 7 C ridge temperature the area f precipitatin with rates abve 5 mm/day increases again, as shwn in Fig. 4. Maximum values exceeding 8 mm/day have shrunk smewhat in size and ccur nly in tw lcatins, ne ver Greenland and the ther in the Nrth Atlantic suth f Greenland. The area in the Antarctic exceeding 8 mm/day fr the 5 C ridge has disappeared. The large areas f precipitatin seem t spread dwnwind like a plume frm a surce regin. When we cnsider the wind fields in the next sectin, we will see this t be a gd interpretatin. In the Nrth Atlantic, the high precipitatin area suth f Greenland extends nrth and eastward acrss the Arctic Ocean, Eurpe, and Asia. It even appears t cntinue acrss the Bering Sea int Alaska and Canada. A large area f precipitatin frms n western Greenland as this plume rises ver the cld, high elevatin f Greenland. The end f this plume als prduces a streamer f precipitatin sutheastward acrss the nrtheastern U.S. Figure 2 Precipitatin rate in mm/day n the glbe fr grid pints ver a ridge f 3 C. Cntur intervals in the lwer diagram are shwn at 5, 1, 4, and 8 mm/day increments. The upper diagram shws the same precipitatin rate data n a 3D surface. 597

4 Figure 3 Precipitatin rate in mm/day n the glbe fr grid pints ver a ridge f sode. Other features are the same as in Fig. 2. Figure 4 Precipitatin rate in mm/day n the glbe fr grid pints ver a ridge f 7 D e. Other features are the same as in Fig

5 ... en c 2, a.. ' 1,5 C C) '+- 1, L- Q).. E J Z 5 RDGPCP 7 (;\ 5 ~ 3 f$'~ <.,.' Precipitatin Rate (mm/day) Figure 5 Frequency histgrams f precipitatin rate in mm/day fr ridge temperatures f 3 e, 5 e, and 7 e. Suth f this nrthernmst plume, between apprximately 3-45 nrth latitude, little precipitatin seems t ccur. A similar lack f precipitatin seems t be evident frm 3-45 suth latitude. These dry features are prbably due t dwnward air mtins in the Hadley cells which rise near the equatr and descend t the nrth and suth. If this is the case, the size f the cells is much greater than nrmal since the regin f descent tday is between 2-3 latitude in the tw hemispheres. Under cnsistently descending regins f air few cluds frm, little precipitatin ccurs, and deserts develp. The dry regin acrss central Eurpe, the nrthern Mediterranean, the mid-east, and central Asia apparent in Fig. 4 wuld have encuraged easy migratin east-west fr civilizatins fllwing the Fld. Fig. 5 shws histgrams f precipitatin fr the three temperatures. Nte the decrease in the number f grid pints with precipitatin less than 5 mm/day and the increase in all categries f precipitatin greater than 5 mm/day as the temperature increases. HORIZONTAL WIND PATTERNS Figs. 6-9 shw the hrizntal wind fields at fur levels (9 mb, 11 mb, 5 mb, and 811 mb) in the atmsphere after ne year f cmputatin with a 7 e ridge. These levels are characteristic f the wind at apprximately 3, 15, 5, and 2 kilmeters abve sea level in the atmsphere, respectively. Winds cmputed by the mdel at the ther eight levels are intermediate between these levels. Winds fr the three different temperatures generally shw similar patterns with sme variatin in the lcatin and intensity f clsed circulatins and small-scale features. At the highest levels in the atmsphere the winds between the equatr and 6 nrth and suth latitude are mstly frm due east with the highest speeds near the equatr f abut 1 m/s. Pleward f 6 latitude in bth hemispheres the winds are still frm the east but at a much lwer velcity and with large eddies. Lking at lwer levels dwn thrugh the atmsphere, the winds in the trpics becme slwer but maintain a generally smth flw frm the east between abut 3 nrth and suth latitude. Nrthward f 6 latitude in bth hemispheres the winds becme westerly, increasing in speed near the surface. Large eddies are evident in the flw in the plar regins. A regin f relatively calm winds with many small eddies develps between 3 and 6 latitude in bth hemispheres between the 599

6 WIND FIELD (5mm 8 rn/sec) ~ ;> E-< E j Cl Cl I ( I ~.L LONGITUDE Figure 6 Hrizntal wind field n the glbe at a pressure f 9 mb (3 km). WIND FIELD (5mm 8 m/sec) LEVEL- 4 R7NW.36<R7EW.36STEP DAY- 36 ~ ( I ~.L LONGITUDE 18 Figure 7 Hrizntal wind field n the glbe at a pressure f 11mb (15 km). 6

7 . - WIND FIELD (5mm 8 m/sec) LEVEL- 8 R7NW.36!R7EW.36STEP DAY- 36 Ol c c I Ol ~'-----~~---~///////~~~ ~~',--;//. ~'----///////~ ,,,,,... - // 'fi..-==~~~~~---~ -'...,.... I'~~ - - ~~j-~~*2~~;s----~ ~~~~~;~~;~,~~~~8~;~~[~J=-?~~~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~.~---~ ~ ~.'~....,.. ~..., _ _. - _ ' _... _ _. = Q _ _ r,+; it~ ~-- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = = ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ; j ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = ~~; - ~ ~ = '. J \J' ~... L..,....., _.. _ ,,_. - _ _ ~~~~~~-~~-~?~ ==~~~~ ~~ ~s,'--~~ ~~ ~~/////////~~ '~ \.\. \\\.,' ////III/I///,.,.;,.,,... ~~ \\\,.L LONGITUDE Figure 8 Hrizntal wind field n the glbe at a pressure f 5 mb (5 km). WIND FIELD (5mm 8 m/sec) LEVEL- 1 R7NW.36!R7EW.36STEP DAY - 36 Ol E~~H8-ki-hTillHt ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~====~ \\~\\~'~-----/////// //////,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,.,... ~ -. \ Ol.L LONGITUDE Figure 9 Hrizntal wind field n the glbe at a pressure f 811 mb (2 km). 61

8 high-speed easterly flw near the equatr and westerly flw near the ples. This regin f lw winds, called the dldrums, becmes larger as ne appraches the surface. Fig. 9 shws the winds at a level which shuld effectively transprt heat and misture frm the ridges tward the cntinents. The winds at 811 mb are apprximately 2 kilmeters abve sea level and are near clud base tday. Precipitatin patterns seen in Figs. 2-4 wuld be expected t have sme relatin t these wind fields. Ntice that the wind directin is in the crrect directin t frm a plume f precipitatin dwnwind acrss the Nrth Atlantic and nrthern Eurpe frm the ridge suth and east f Greenland. The winds in the trpics als appear t be frming plumes acrss Africa and Suth America dwnwind frm the ridges in the Indian Ocean and the Suth Atlantic. In the suthern plar regin the stry is nt quite s clear. Because the ridge is generally parallel t the wind, it is hard t determine the directin and flw f any plumes which might be frmed. Interesting variatins in the wind patterns ver Africa and Suth America seem t indicate that the ridges may be creating vertical mtins. The relatinship between divergence in the hrizntal wind fields and vertical mtins will be discussed in the next sectin. Fig. 1 shws the average glbal wind speed as a functin f ridge temperature and pressure. The wind speed at pressures greater than abut 2 mb (altitudes belw 12 kilmeters) increases and the wind speed at pressures less than 2 mb (altitudes abve 12 kilmeters) decreases as the ridge temperature becmes htter. Apparently, lw level heating by the mid-cean ridge causes a change in the vertical structure f the atmsphere. T mre fully understand these changes and their causes wuld require a full explratin f pressure, mmentum, and energy balances thughut the entire atmsphere which is beynd the scpe f this paper E 5 Q) L- ~ 1 en en Q) 2 L- a.. 5 1, Average Glbal Wind Speed (m/s) Figure 1 Average glbal wind speed in m/sec as a functin f ridge temperature and pressure. Ridge temperatures f 3C, 5 C, and 7 C are shwn as stars, diamnds, and bxes, respectively. The vertical distance is prprtinal t height in the atmsphere since pressure is pltted n a lgarithmic scale. 62

9 VERTICAL WIND PATTERNS Fig. 11 shws the average vertical wind speed n the earth between the surface and the level at 245 mb fr a 7 C ridge temperature. The vertical wind speed is fund by integrating the divergence in the hrizntal wind fields upward frm the earth's surface accrding t Eq. 1 (1) where OJ r is the vertical velcity in pressure units at the tp f a layer f air in the atmsphere, OJ a is the vertical velcity at the bttm f a layer, P is the pressure, and u and v are the cmpnents f the wind in the easterly and nrtherly directins x and y, respectively. The bttm f the layer was assumed t be at the surface f the earth and OJ. was assumed t be zer. The vertical wind is nt zer at the surface if the hrizntal wind is flwing up r dwn an inclined plane. Hwever, calculatins f vertical wind with n upward mtins at the surface are representative f the dynamic effects f the atmsphere alne. The divergence in the hrizntal wind field (the term in brackets in Eq. 1) was calculated using a 5-pint cmputatinal algrithm. The layer f air between the earth's surface and 245 mb (abut 1 kilmeters) is knwn as the trpsphere. Mst f the weather affecting the earth's surface ccurs in the lwest 1 kilmeters f the atmsphere. The calculatin f the average vertical wind speed in this layer f air might be expected t relate t precipitatin at the surface. Upward mtin f mist air prduces cndensatin, cluds, and precipitatin while dwnward mtin f mist r dry air results in clear skies and dry surface cnditins. In reality, n such crrelatin shuld necessarily exist. The mdel is a large-scale ne and the fields f vertical velcity reflect the verall general circulatin patterns generated by the energetics f the entire atmsphere. Thus, vertical mtin features such as are assciated with the meridinal cells and large standing waves wuld dminate the vertical velcity fields. The effect f the ht ridges wuld be felt principally as a large-scale energy input that wuld mdify these large scale circulatin features in a general way thrughut the glbe. The precipitatin induced by the ht ridges, hwever, wuld be prduced by lcalized cnvectin at the clud scale. The resulting lcalized vertical mtins wuld nt be reslved by the mdel. This cnvectin and assciated rainfall is handled in the mdel by a ~ ~;- ~ ~;~';----A ~S,g t-. ~~. ~i l! Figure 11 Vertical velcity in mb/hr n the glbe. Cntur intervals n the lwer diagram are shwn in increments f 2 mb/hr, bth psitive (up) and negative (dwn). The upper diagram shws the same vertical velcity data n a 3D surface. 63

10 parameterizatin scheme that takes care f prcesses at scales much smaller than the space reslutin f the mdel. The reslved large scales wuld respnd t the verall energetic effects f the cluds by mdifying in a general way the large-scale features f the general circulatin. Fig. 11 shws that upward air mtins ccur in the Nrth Atlantic, the Suth Pacific, and the Suthern Oceans where the mid-cean ridge is lcated. The upward mtins exceed 5 mb/hr nrtheast f Iceland and are generally upward ver the entire Nrth Atlantic. Upward mtins in the Suth Pacific and Suthern Oceans seldm exceed 1 mb/hr and are mre difficult t assciate with the ridge. Alng ther prtins f the ridge, the upward mtins are even mre chatic, and if there are assciated patterns, they are displaced away frm the ridge. In a few lcatins there appears t be a gd crrelatin between upward vertical mtin and precipitatin, but in mst lcatins, there is little r n crrelatin. It is clear that precipitatin depends nly partially n vertical wind fields derived frm the divergence f the hrizntal wind. In fact, there appears t be a general upward mtin ver the cntinents and a general dwnward mtin ver the ceans which masks the effect f the ridge. Away frm the mid-cean ridge the strngest upward mtins are assciated with large waves in the westerly flw f air in the plar regins. Tw centers f strng upward mtin ccur in the nrth plar regin ver Alaska and dwn alng the west cast f Nrth America and ver Greenland and the Nrth Sea int nrthwestern Eurpe. Strng dwnward mtin ccurs ver Canada and eastern Nrth America and ver mst f nrthern Asia. In the suthern plar regin strng upward mtin ccurs near the Rss Sea and dwnward mtins elsewhere ver Antarctica. Mderate upward mtins ccur ver mst f Africa, acrss suthern Asia, and ver Indnesia. It is nt clear why the vertical winds in the Trpics ccur in the patterns they d. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Climate simulatins fr the three different mid-cean ridge temperatures shw that increased temperatures lead t increased precipitatin ver and dwnwind f the ridge, increased hrizntal wind speed in the lwer atmsphere, decreased hrizntal wind speed alft, and an increase in the frequency f upward vertical velcity ver the ridges. The rate f precipitatin exceeds 2 mm/day ver large prtins f the ridge and is up t 8 mm/day in limited areas fr a 7 e ridge. It is greatest ver Greenland and the Nrth Atlantic suth f Greenland. Precipitatin als extends dwnwind ver prtins f the cean away frm the ridge, tward plar regins, and int cntinental areas, particularly near the equatr. Precipitatin rates and areas f cverage increase glbally as the ridge temperature are increased. The hrizntal winds frm the surface thrugh the trpsphere are westerly frm mid-latitudes pleward in bth hemispheres and easterly at equatrial latitudes. Between 3-45 nrth and suth latitudes the winds are relatively calm in what are called the dldrums. The heat and misture ver ht ridges cause the frequency f dwnward mtins t decrease and upward mtins t increase. Precipitatin in the dldrums falls ver the mid-cean ridge where it frms. Hwever, increased precipitatin ver the mid-cean ridge in equatrial latitudes drifts westward and precipitatin in plar latitudes drifts eastward t fall n cntinental regins. It is apparent that ht mid-cean ridges cause a large change in the distributin f winds and precipitatin glbally. The effects are nt limited t nly lcatins near the ridge. Average glbal hrizntal wind speeds in the lwer atmsphere are increased as the ridge temperature is increased. Precipitatin rates and cverage increase, particularly tward the plar regins as the ridge temperature is increased. Sme f the precipitatin patterns seem t match thse which ccurred during the Ice Age. These effects appear t be cnsistent with many f the expectatins frm the Scriptures and inferred distributins f snw and ice cverage during the Ice Age. If the Genesis Fld was a glbal, catastrphic event as described in the Scriptures, it wuld have been accmpanied by large crustal mvements, frmatin f mid-cean ridges, and significant heating f the cean in lcatins near the ridges. This heating wuld have prduced increased evapratin ver the ceans and precipitatin ver the cntinents and plar regins. The mdel simulatins have shwn that the distributin f precipitatin in the plar regins fllws the distributin f snw and ice which ccurred during the Ice Age. This match increases cnfidence in the catastrphic, tectnic Fld mdel f Wise et al. [6]. 64

11 CCM1 simulates the glbal dynamic and hydrlgical effects caused by a change in sea-surface temperature like thse suggested in this paper. Hwever, it can nt simulate smaller-scale features and even htter temperatures which might have been generated during the actual Fld event. The frmatin f hypercanes as suggested by Emanuel [3] wuld prbably ccur under the cnditins assumed in this research and culd be an additinal factr n precipitatin and wind. Future research n ht mid-cean ridges shuld fcus n three areas. First, a cmplete study f the changes in the glbal distributins f energy and mmentum wuld help t understand hw and why the wind fields are affected by heat and misture released by the ridge. Secnd, messcale hypercane mdels shuld be incrprated int the study f winds and precipitatin. And, third, precipitatin patterns assciated with ht mid-cean ridges shuld be mre carefully cmpared with thse which ccurred during the Ice Age t see if even finer details can be distinguished. Sme f the precipitatin may have fallen as heavy rain in the equatrial and mid-latitude regins prducing distinctive ersinal features rather than ice and snw cverage ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Calculatins fr this study were made n cmputers prvided by Steve Lw and his assciates at the Hewlett-Packard Crpratin. The basic cde fr CCM1 was prvided by James Hack at the Natinal Center fr Atmspheric Research. It was mdified t run n an IBM cmpatible persnal cmputer by Herman Daily. Karen Buselt prepared several f the graphical prducts used fr displaying wind and precipitatin distributins. Numerus dnrs t the Institute fr Creatin Research financially supprted this effrt. AppreCiatin is expressed t ne f the reviewers fr his cntributin n the interactin between clud-scale and general circulatin dynamics. Elhim is praised fr the beauty and design inherent in His creatin f the atmsphere. I can nly marvel at the intricacy f this system and hw little we knw abut hw it wrks. REFERENCES [1] Bath, L.M, MA Dias, D.L. Williamsn, G.S. Williamsn, and RJ. Wlski, User's Guide t NCAR CCM1, NCAR Technical Reprt, TN-286+IA, 1987, Natinal Center fr Atmspheric Research, Bulder, Clrad. [2] Bath, L.M., MA Dias, D.L. Williamsn, G.S. Williamsn, and RJ. Wlski, Dcumentatin f NCAR CCM1, NCAR Technical Reprt, TN-287+IA, 1991, Natinal Center fr Atmspheric Research, Bulder, Clrad. [3] Emanuel, KA, K. Speer, R Rtunn, R Srivastava, and M. Mlina, Hypercanes A Pssible Link in Glbal Extinctin Scenaris. Jurnal f Gephysical Research, Vl. 1, N. D7, (1995)13,755-13,765. [4] Heezen, B. and M. Tharp, Wrld Ocean Flr. A map f 1 sheet, 1977, Lamnt-Dherty Gelgical Observatry, Palisades, NY and U.S. Navy, Office f Naval Research. [5] Williamsn, D.L., J.T. Kiehl, V. Ramanathan, RE. Dickinsn, and J.J. Hack, Descriptin f NCAR Cmmunity Climate Mdel (CCM1 l. NCAR Technical Reprt, TN-285+STR, 1987, Natinal Center fr Atmspheric Research, Bulder, Clrad. [6] Wise, K.P., SA Austin, J.R Baumgardner, D.R Humphreys, A.A. Snelling, and L. Vardiman, Catastrphic Plate Tectnics A Glbal Mdel f Earth Histry, Prceedings f the Third Internatinal Cnference n Creatinism, RE. Walsh, et ai., Editrs, 1994, Creatin Science Fellwship, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, pp

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