Northridge, Los Angeles 1994 and Bhuj, India Earthquake

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1 Northridge, Los Angeles 1994 and Bhuj, India Earthquake Background Northridge: Magnitude of 6.7, lasting 15 seconds. The epicenter was 32km north-west of Los Angeles beneath the San Fernando Valley. Loss of life was relatively small but with high economic cost. Economic Impacts Northridge: $20 billion worth of damage to property and infrastructure. Damage to vast freeway system (11 major roads) meaning a high cost to rebuild. Limited transport which would affected the Business sector. It deters people from moving to the area or visiting it affecting money generated from the tourism industry. The Anaheim stadium collapsed, and there was further damage from fires and landslides. 11 hospitals suffered structural damage and their was a considerable cost to insurance companies through many claims on houses, cars etc. Social Impacts Northridge: 51 people died with over 9000 people injured. Many people suffered stress induced cardiac arrests. Damage to freeway network and public transport links occurred, in addition to damage to infrastructure directly affecting residents of the area. Many of the injuries and fatalities were caused by fire and landslides. Many people left homeless or houses damaged. Environmental Impacts Northridge: Landslides took place affecting wildlife habitats. The earthquake caused fires killing wildlife and plant life. Possible contamination of water through damaged infrastructure e.g. burst pipes, flooding. Carbon foot print of the clean-up and rebuild effort was high. Management Northridge: Many insurance companies stopped or severely restricted insurance for property destroyed by earthquakes in California. (Economic management.) California Earthquake Authority (CEA) created to offer minimal insurance cover. (Social management.) Effort made to reinforce infrastructure, more specifically the freeway bridges so they re more able to withstand seismic shaking. Law passed to require water heaters to be properly secured passed in Seismic force resisting systems implemented in the reconstruction of buildings that were damaged in the earthquake. Background Bhuj: Magnitude of 7.9, lasting 1 minute. An area the size of southern England were affected. Earthquake caused by the collision of the Eurasian and the Australian-Indian Plate. Economic Impacts Bhuj: Disaster loss was estimated at around $1.5 billion and reconstruction cost estimated at $1.7 billion. Social Impacts Bhuj: 20,000 people are estimated to have dies, and around people were made homeless. The earthquake affected 15.9 million people (almost half of India s population). Hospitals, fire stations and civil administration buildings were all destroyed, including limited medical facilities and no power or communications in many parts of Gujarat. Poor sanitation and lack of drinking water led to the spread of diseases such as cholera and typhoid. Hypothermia also set in and there was much psychological trauma. Environmental Impacts Bhuj: Before the earthquake there was a prolonged period of drought, after the event there were many reports of the water table rising. Several dams including the Suvi and Tappar Dams were damaged. Management Bhuj: International aid including food, clean water, medical supplies and volunteer help. International volunteers sent to help the clean-up effort. Attempt at evacuation and clean-up however many areas remained partially ruined and bodies remained trapped in rubble as it proved difficult for an LEDC to have access to the appropriate technology, funding and workers to make a significant difference. Rebuilding earthquake-proof houses, with low stone walls and the top half made of bamboo and thatch.

2 Asian Tsunami Tsunami Background: The tsunami occurred on the 26 th of December 2004 in the Indian Ocean. It occurred because of the Indio-Australian plate sunk below the Eurasian plate. Pressure built up over many years and was released in the earthquake which reached 9.0 on the richter scale. As the plate moved they caused the seabed to be pushed up and down, causing a column of water to be pushed away from the fault line as a series of giant waves. The wave reached up to 15 meters in some areas. Social Impacts: The main impacts were on the western tip of Indonesian island of Sumatra. More than 70% of the inhabitants of some coastal villages were reported to have died (approx 250,000 people). 13 different countries were affected, with approximately 2 million people being made homeless. In addition to this water was contaminated causing serious health risks to the people of the Asian islands. Due to the many tourists, it became a global disaster, people from nearly 30 different countries were killed. Economic Impacts: Around 1 million jobs were lost in Sri Lanka and Indonesia alone. The Indonesian government estimated that reconstruction would cost $4.5 billion. Due to salt water contamination many sources of fresh water and destroyed large areas of arable land, in addition to the islands jetties, badly affecting the tourist industry. Environmental Impacts: Coral reef systems were damaged and in some cases destroyed, and large areas of mangroves were uprooted. Of particular concern were the endangered sea turtles of Sri Lanka and some of the Indian islands. On the east coast of Sri Lanka almost all of the turtle hatcheries were destroyed when the sandy beaches were washed away. Large areas of farm land were destroyed, in turn destroying crops. The most devastating environmental impact was the 8 million liters of oil that were spilt, causing water contamination and wildlife habitat destruction. The tsunami drove approx tonnes of water onto every 1.5m of coastline and therefore caused considerable erosion in some parts and devastating deposition in others. Responses: Following the tsunami there were over 100 aid organisations operating in Indonesia alone providing emergency food, water and shelter to about people. In Sri Lanka, the president, Chandrika Kumaratunga, launched a $3.5 billion reconstruction drive. Some aid agencies blamed the Indian government for refusing international aid in the first instance, stating this aid would have helped reduce the secondary impacts of diseases, and reduced the death toll, due to rescue attempts. The military built extra landing fields on the islands to help with relief. About people were moved to relief camps on larger islands.

3 Kashmir Earthquake Location: Located in South Asia, near Pakistan. Pakistan covers an area of square kilometers. It is edged between India, Afghanistan and Iran. It also has a border with China in the North and the Arabian sea in the south. Background: it occurred at on the 8 th of October It measured a 7.7 on the Richter scale. The earthquake compares in intensity to the 1935 Quetta earthquake, the 2001 Gujarat quake and the 1906 San Francisco quake. Cause Pakistan lies in the area of collision of the Eurasian ad Indian tectonic plates.these are the same tectonic plates that were responsible for the birth of the Himalayas and is the cause of unstable seismicity in the region. There was a very high death toll in Pakistan this was mainly down to poor construction and infrastructure in Pakistan. Primary Effects: The death toll of the earthquake was 75,000 in Pakistan. Officials say that around 1,400 people died outside Pakistan in countries such as Afghanistan and India. Entire towns were wiped out. Many building collapsed including businesses and school and most of the devastation hit North Pakistan, In Muzaffardabad district alone an estimated 1442 schools collapsed, 633 were considered too dangerous to use, and some students and teachers died. The state capital of Kashmir was hardest hit in terms of casualties and destruction. More than 3 million people were left homeless and seriously injured. Secondary Effects: Broken sewerage pipes contaminated water supplies and spread disease. Many people strapped in their homes because it was the month of Ramadan. Damage to the economy was around $5.8 billion. The earthquake left 3.3 million homeless. Short Term Responses: Over $5.4 billion in aid arrived from all around the world. Bad weather lead to landslides which blocked roads which made it difficult for relief workers to reach people in need. The World Food Programme (WFP) mounted the largest helicopter operation in the United Nations history. Around 600,000 people could only be reached by helicopter or n foot in the months after the disaster. Long Term Responses: Building regulations were improved in Pakistan to reduce damage and decrease the death rate in future earthquakes. Schools and hospitals were rebuilt. International relief was chaotic and underfunded and hundreds of thousands of survivors were at risk as the bitter Himalayan winter approached. The UN received just 12% of the $312 million pledged to its emergency appeal.

4 Montserrat Volcano Volcanic Hazard Location: Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean. Within this location there is a volcanic area located in the south of the island on Soufriere Hills called Chances Peak. Montserrat is approximately 16km long and 10km wide. It is located of the North Atlantic Ocean and just North of the Equator. Background: Before 1995 Chances Peak had been dormant for over 300 years. However in 1995 the volcano began to give off warning signs of an eruption. After Chances Peak had woken up it then remained active for 5 years with the most intense eruptions occurring in Cause: Montserrat lies on a destructive plate boundary. As the two plates (Caribbean and Atlantic) merge the oceanic plate is forced down under the continental plate. As it is forced down pressure increases which triggers earthquakes and at the same time magma is produced which melts the descending crust to form molten lava. The hot magma tries to rise to the surface. When it succeeds will form a volcano such as the one in Montserrat. Impacts: Montserrat was devastated by pyroclastic flows. Of the small population of 11,000, 50% were evacuated to the North of Montserrat as well as neighbouring islands. The north was under developed and lacked infrastructure, leading to harsh living development there. Despite the evacuations, 19 people were killed by the eruptions as well as they stayed to watch over their crops. Large areas of the capital, Plymouth, were covered in layers of ash and mud accounting for 2/3 of the island. Many homes and building have been destroyed, including hospitals airports and many roads leading to its desertification. The later cost to rebuild and compensation was massive, especially as there were massive hits to the tourism and agriculture industries, leading to an overall loss of income. Agriculture was hit the hardest as their farmland was destroyed by the massive pyroclastic flow. Not just farmland was destroyed by pyroclastic flow, forest fires also occurred. Flooding was also a real concern as there were raised water levels due to the ash and mud deposited in the river bed. Short Term Responses/Management: Evacuation to the North. Plymouth Abandoned. British government paid for development. Unemployment rose (farmers and tourism). Money given to some to help move country. 41 million given by Britain in aid. Long Term Responses/Management: Exclusion zone around the volcano. Observatory made to monitor the volcano. Services in the north have been improved. Growth of tourism through volcano. New infrastructure built. Improvements of the observatory in Risk assessment completed. Education scheme to help inform people. Seismograph established.

5 Eldfell, Heimaey, Iceland Managing a Volcanic Hazard 3 key ways to managing the consequences: 1) Modifying the hazard event, through building design, building location and emergency procedure. 2) Improved forecasting and warning e.g. looking for recurrence interval s. 3) Sharing the cost of loss, through insurance or disaster relief. Risk assessment: 1) The likely size and range of natural processes. 2) The extent of the impacts. 3) Ways in which the impacts can be reduced. Natural hazard management cycle: Pre-disaster planning 1) Prevention 2) Mitigation 3) Preparedness. Post-disaster responses 1) Response 2) Recovery 3) Redevelopment. Possible physical and social adjustments to hazards: Physical adjustments - 1) Building and construction techniques to withstand a hazard of give size and strength. 2) Identifying and avoiding sites where hazards are likely to occur. 3) Predicting where and when a hazard might occur. 4) Preventing or altering the characteristics of a hazard. Social adjustments 1) Land use zoning and restrictions for hazardous locations 2) Establishing minimum building standards for hazardous locations. 3) Public awareness through education. 4) Issuing early warnings of imminent hazards. 5) Evacuation plans, preparations for emergency food and shelter. 6) Emergency preparedness programmes to protect life and property. 7) Spreading economic loss more fairly through insurance, taxation and grants. 8) Reforming a community so that it is less vulnerable to natural hazards and more aware of the conditions/factors that increase the risk of natural hazards. Iceland: In Jan 1973 an eruption occurred along a 2km fissure in Iceland. Nearly all 5300 residents of the island of Heimaey were evacuated. Strong winds blew ash and cinder, burying homes in the town and fishing port. This was the first successful attempt to manage an eruption. For nearly 6 months sea water was sprayed onto the advancing lava flows in an effort to cool them down, stop them flowing and diverting them. The diverted flows added new land allowing more protection for the port. It was the largest effort ever exerted to control volcanic activity. More than 19 miles of pipe and 43 pumps were used to deliver sea water onto the flow up to 6 million cubic meters of water were pumped onto the flows.