LECTURE 1 - Introduction Hrvoje Tkalčić
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1 LECTURE 1 - Introduction Hrvoje Tkalčić *** N.B. The material presented in these lectures is from the principal textbooks, other books on similar subject, the research and lectures of my colleagues from various universities around the world, my own research, and finally, numerous web sites. I am grateful for some figures I used in this lecture to E. Garnero and L. Breger. I am thankful to many others who make their research and teaching material available online; sometimes even a single figure or an idea about how to present a subject is a valuable resource. Please note that this PowerPoint presentation is not a complete lecture; it is most likely accompanied by an in-class presentation of main mathematical concepts (on transparencies or blackboard).***
2 Units and scales
3 Time Time is a fundamental variable in geophysics. Geophysical images of Earth s surface and interior are snapshots of Earth s dynamic processes.
4 Time How are relative ages of rocks classified? Fossils (remnants of prehistoric life succeed each other in systemic fashion) How are absolute ages of rocks determined? Radioactive isotope dating
5 Time -> Fossils This evolution is a clock of relative time, called the Principle of faunal succession. allows geologists to identify rocks of same age in different places. OLDEST YOUNGEST one-celled organisms multi-celled organisms organisms with shells fishes plants insects amphibians reptiles mammals
6 Geologic Time Chart
7 If the entire Earth s history were scaled to 1 year The appearance of planet Earth -around 4:15pm the first hominids appear in East Africa -between 8pm and 9pm, the first humans appear in Africa -at 8:04pm, humans make their first tools -around 8:30pm, they make their first shelters -between 9pm and 10pm, humans arrive to Europe
8 Geologic time
9 Atoms, minerals and rocks rock minerals mineral collection of one or more minerals A collection of one or more types of atoms
10 Atoms, minerals and rocks Atomic structure Example: mineral quartz made up of silicon (Si) & oxygen (O) atoms O 2- O 2- Si 4+ O 2- O 2-
11 Atoms, minerals and rocks Example: Granite & constituent minerals Rocks Sedimentary Igneous Metamorphic
12 Average composition of the continental crust Percent of elements by WEIGHT
13 Average composition of the continental crust Percent of elements by VOLUME
14 Sedimentary rocks Grand Canyon Alps, Himalayas, etc. - consist of sedimentary rocks, laid down over many millions of years But, in what sea were the Himalayan rocks deposited and how did they get sandwiched between India and the Asian landmass? In the geology textbooks of the mid twentieth century - there were no satisfactory answers.
15 Dynamic Earth: how did plate tectonics concept developed? 16 th century observation of coastal fits Same fossils found on different continents R E J E C T E D! Alfred Wegener observed mismatch of climate features Proposed continental drift Pangea = Laurasia + Gondwana
16 Mid-Ocean ridges
17 Earthquake distribution and focal mechanisms
18 The Earth s Interior CRUST Oceanic 0-6 km ( young, < 180 m.y.) Continental 0-34 km (older, up to 3.8 b.y.) MANTLE Upper km Lower km Brittle lithosphere Plastic flow astenosphere CORE Outer (liquid) km Inner (solid) km
19 Maxwell s equation and its implication for the geodynamo: The force on a charge is r F = q " ( r E + r B # r v ) The law of electromagnetic induction : r $ E " d r s = % d dt r $ B " n r da r Applying the Stokes theorem, & # E r " n r ( ' r + $ da = % $ * B -" n r da ) a 't, a. & r # E r = % ' r B How do these terms remain in balance? 't a Sea floor spreading from the age of rocks and the magnetic stripes due to the magnetic field reversals Conveyor belt concept by H. Hess (1960) Continents with no plow experience
20 Plate tectonics and boundaries Active Earth - movie Continental and oceanic crust Collision may cause: Faulting Earthquakes Mountain building Volcanoes
21 Plate tectonics and boundaries Structural contrasts Tonga-Fiji islands arc with earthquakes occurring within the descending slab. Asthenosphere on both sides of the descending slab with convection, drag and secondary spreading. Andean volcanic arc with earthquakes at the slablithosphere boundary - thick lithosphere prevents secondary spreading. Active Earth - movie
22 Plates
23 slower than average faster than average
24
25 Study of the deep Earth s interior requires a multidisciplinary approach +Geodesy +Mathematical geophysics +Geomagnetism +Geochemistry +Geology +Computer science
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