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1 Major events in the history of Biology: Modern Theory and more p 2 +2pq+q 2 = 1 1 In this lecture topic What is a species and how do new species arise? The importance of systematics? How can Mendelian genetics be use to explain natural selection in populations? Allele frequencies and evolution Hardy- Weinberg. Sources of variations in alleles. 2 Darwin s five theories No constancy of species Common ancestry Gradual changes Natural selection (microevolution) Multiplication of species 3 Page 1
2 Speciation 4 Species concepts what is a species? Biological species Morphospecies Phylogenetic species Species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Ernst Mayer (1942) Mayer ( ) 5 Species concepts Morphospecies Yellow throated warbler Yellow rumped warbler Figure Page 2
3 Rate of evolutionary change Anagenesis Cladogenesis Sp. A Sp. B Sp. C Sp. D Time A B C Phenotype 7 Species concepts Ring species Parapatric Elaphe oboleta Figure Black rat snake E. o. osoleta Yellow rat snake E. o. quadrivittato Texas rat snake E. o. lindeimeri Gray rat snake E. o. spiloides Everglades rat snake E. o. rossalleni 8 Species concepts Ring species Parapatric Ensatina eschscholtzi Figure Video Oregon salamander E. e. oregonensis Painted salamander E. e. picta Sierra Nevada salamander E. e. platensis Yellow-eyed salamander E. e. xanthoptica Yellow-blotched salamander E. e. croceater Monterey salamander E. e. eschscholtzii Large-blotched salamander E. e. klauberi 9 Page 3
4 Second contact Hybridization outcomes Fusion of the populations Reinforcement Hybrid zone formation Extinction of one population Creation of a new species 10 Allopatric Speciation - Vicariance Figure Allopatric Speciation - Dispersal A B C D A B C D A 3. C A 4. C D D B B Figure Page 4
5 Grylloblattid Ice age vicariance Video 13 Sympatric speciation Nonnative species Native species Nonnative species Native species 14 Biological species Reproductive isolation Prezygotic isolation Habitat (Ecological) Temporal Behaviour Mechanical Gametic Postzygotic isolation 15 Page 5
6 Biological species Reproductive isolation Prezygotic isolation Habitat (Ecological) Temporal Behaviour Mechanical Gametic Postzygotic isolation 16 Biological species Reproductive isolation Prezygotic isolation Habitat Temporal Behaviour Mechanical comit orchid Gametic Postzygotic isolation 17 Biological species Reproductive isolation Prezygotic isolation Habitat (Ecological) Temporal Behaviour Mechanical Gametic Postzygotic isolation 18 Page 6
7 Biological species Reproductive isolation Prezygotic isolation Postzygotic isolation Hybrid inviability Hybrid sterility Hybrid breakdown 19 Important stages in the history of Biology 20th century: Modern biology Cellular respiration, ATP and mitochondia ( ) Ecology (1940 s) DNA is the genetic materials (1943) DNA structure (1953) Gene regulation (1961) Genetic code (1960 s) Recombinant DNA experiments (1970 s) Cloning of a mammal (1997) Human genome sequence (2000) 20 Types of taxonomies Folk Artificial Mechanical Natural (Evolutionary) Cladistic (Phylogenetic) Hennig ( ) 21 Page 7
8 Phylogenetic tree Figure 18.13a 22 Cladogram Figure 18.13b 23 Conflicting interpretations 24 Page 8
9 Conflicting interpretations Hylabatidae Pongidae Hominidae Hyobates (Gibbon) Pongo (orangutan) Gorilla Pan (chimpanzee) Homo (human) 25 Cladistics - Useful terms Apomorphies Derived characters within a group (evolutionary lineage) Plesiomorphies Primitive characters within a group Synapomorphies Derived characters shared between groups Symplesiomorphies Shared primitive characters that are shared between groups 26 Cladistics Useful terms A AC AB ACD ACE C= Synapomorphy A= Symplesiomorphy C= Apomorphy E= Autapomorphy A= Plesiomorphy 27 Page 9
10 Cladogram construction Double jointed mandible Two pairs of wings Folding wing mechanism Metamorphosis Reduction of wings to haltere 28 Cladogram construction Double jointed mandible Two pairs of wings Folding wing mechanism Metamorphosis Reduction of wings to haltere 29 Cladogram construction Double jointed mandible Two pairs of wings Folding wing mechanism Metamorphosis Reduction of wings to haltere 30 Page 10
11 Cladogram construction Double jointed mandible Two pairs of wings Folding wing mechanism Metamorphosis Reduction of wings to haltere 31 Cladogram construction Double jointed mandible Two pairs of wings Folding wing mechanism Metamorphosis Reduction of wings to haltere 32 Cladogram construction Double jointed mandible Two pairs of wings Folding wing mechanism Metamorphosis Reduction of wings to haltere 33 Page 11
12 Cladogram construction A B C D E C B A D E A - Double jointed mandible B - Two pairs of wings C - Folding wing mechanism D - Metamorphosis E - Reduction of wings to haltere 34 Parsimony The KISS principle Figure Homology vs. homoplasy The camera eye Octopus Fish 36 Page 12
13 Homology vs. homoplasy The camera eye Octopus Fish 37 Anatomy of a Cladogram Monophyletic Polyphyletic Paraphyletic Figure Porifera Cnidaria Bryozoa Platyhelminthes Nematod Mollusca Annelida Onychophora Arthropoda Echinodermata Chordata Lophophore Trochophore Moulting Lophotrohozoa Ecdysozoa Spiral, blastopore mouth, schizocoel Radial, blastopore mouth, enterocoel No tissues Diploblastic, radial Tissues Triploblastic, bilateral Phylogeny of animals (Fig 26.6) 39 Page 13
14 Green algae Liverworts Hornworts Mosses Lycophytes Pterophytes Gymnosperms Angiosperms Phylogeny of plants Figure Major events in the history of Biology: Modern Theory and more p 2 +2pq+q 2 = 1 41 In this lecture topic What is a species and how do new species arise? The importance of systematics? How can Mendelian genetics be use to explain natural selection in populations? Allele frequencies and evolution Hardy- Weinberg. Sources of variations in alleles. 42 Page 14
15 Darwin s five theories No constancy of species Common ancestry Gradual changes Natural selection (microevolution) Multiplication of species 43 Important stages in the history of Biology Modern theory and more Synthetic (Modern) theory of evolution Population genetics and natural selection based on Mendelian genetics Huxley ( ) 44 Microevolution Evolutionary changes that result from changes in allele frequencies in a population, or in chromosome structure or numbers due to mutation and recombination. 45 Page 15
16 Some basic terms for microevolution Allele Phenotype Genotype Dominant and recessive 46 Important stages in the history of Biology Modern theory and more Hardy ( ) Weinberg ( ) 47 Punnett squares 3:1 9:3:3:1 48 Page 16
17 Incomplete dominance snap dragons P - parental F 1 Generation1 F 2 Generation2 C R C R Red C R C R = 25% X X C w C R Pink C w C R = 50% C W C W White C W C W = 25% Figure Genotype and allele frequencies Phenotype Genotype Number Genotype frequency Total C R alleles Total C W alleles C R C R /1000 = x450 = 900 0X450 = 0 C R C w /1000 = x500 = 500 1x500 = 500 C W C W 50 50/1000 = x50 = 0 2x50 = 100 Total = p = q = Using the Hardy-Weinberg Principle p 2 +2pq+q 2 = 1 C R frequency p=0.7 C W frequency q=0.3 C R frequency p=0.7 C W frequency q=0.3 C R C R = p 2 C R C W = pq C w C R = pq C W C W = q 2 51 Page 17
18 Hardy-Weinberg principle s assumptions No natural selection Random mating sexual selection population is large Gene flow No mutation 52 Effect of selection Distance run Average speed Revolutions / day Revolutions / minute Generation Generation Figure Effect of selection - fixation 54 Page 18
19 Effect of selection against recessive 55 Effect of selection for heterozygote 56 Effect of selection for heterozygote Figure 10-1 Figure Page 19
20 Selection with multiple loci traits (Quantitative traits) Number of individuals Measurement or value of the trait 58 Selection with multiple loci traits Directional selection Before selection After selection Figure 17.9a 59 Selection with multiple loci traits Stabilizing selection Before selection After selection Figure 17.9b 60 Page 20
21 Selection with multiple loci traits goldenrod galls % fly larvae killed % fly larvae killed Wasps Birds Gall diameter (mm) 61 Selection with multiple loci traits Stabilizing selection Goldenrod galls Before selection % fly larvae alive or killed After selection Gall diameter (mm) Figure Selection with multiple loci traits Disruptive selection Before selection After selection Figure 17.9c 63 Page 21
22 Selection with multiple loci traits Disruptive selection Figure 25-5b 64 Hardy-Weinberg principle s assumptions No natural selection Random mating sexual selection population is large Gene flow No mutation 65 Nonrandom mating - Inbreeding Homozygote Homozygote Heterozygote parent for A 2 parent for A 1 parent Eggs Eggs Eggs Generation 1 A 1 A 1 Homozygote A 1 A 2 Heterozygote A 2 A 2 Homozygote Generation 2 Generation 3 Generation 4 Figure Page 22
23 Nonrandom mating - Sexual dimorphism Beetle Scarlet tanager Lion Females Males 67 Nonrandom mating - sexual selection Sexual selection On males female choice On males competition Combat Infanticide 68 Sexual selection female choice Mean number of mates/male Shortened Normal Lengthened riflebird Tail feathers 69 Page 23
24 Sexual selection Male competition - combat Seals V1 Seals V2 70 Sexual selection Male competition - combat 71 Sexual selection Male competition Copulatory wheel 72 Page 24
25 Sexual selection Male competition infanticide 73 Hardy-Weinberg principle s assumptions No natural selection Random mating sexual selection population is large Gene flow No mutation 74 Genetic drift 75 Figure 25-6 Page 25
26 Genetic drift bottle neck affect 76 Genetic drift Founder affect 77 Hardy-Weinberg principle s assumptions No natural selection Random mating sexual selection population is large Gene flow No mutation 78 Page 26
27 Gene flow - migration Source population New population Source population New population Seed Gene flow A A 1A A 1A 1 A 1A 1 1 A 1A A A 1A 2 A 1A 1 A 1A 2 A 1A 2 A 1A A 1A A 1A 1 1A 2 A 1A 1 A1A 2 1A 2 A 1A 1 Frequency of A 1 = 0.90 Frequency of A 1 = 0.50 Frequency of A 2 = 0.10 Frequency of A 2 = 0.50 Frequency of A 1 = 0.83 Frequency of A 1 = 0.67 Frequency of A 2 = 0.17 Frequency of A 2 = 0.33 Figure 25-8b 79 Gene flow migration 80 Hardy-Weinberg principle s assumptions No natural selection Random mating sexual selection population is large Gene flow No mutation 81 Page 27
28 Eukaryote variability - Random segregation Chromosomes Combinations Chromosomes Combinations ,554, cow 1,073,741, ,359,738, x , x mouse 1,048, x human* 4,194, Mutation Beneficial Neutral Deleterious Figure Genetic code Figure Page 28
29 Mutation Point mutations Silent Missense Nonsense Frame shift Chromosomal mutations 85 Silent 86 Missense Normal: the one big fly had one red eye Missense: thr one big fly had one red eye. 87 Page 29
30 Mutation sickle cell Figure 10-1 Figure Nonsense Normal: the one big fly had one red eye Nonsense: the one big 89 Frame shift Normal: the one big fly had one red eye Frame shift: the one rbi gfl yha don ere dey 90 Page 30
31 Mutation Point mutations Chromosomal mutations Inversions Translocation Deletion Duplication Crossing over Polyploidy Genome duplication Inversion Translocation Figure Mutation Point mutations Chromosomal mutations Inversions Translocation Duplication Deletion Crossing over Polyploidy Genome duplication Deletion Duplication Figure Chromosomal mutations crossing over Figure Page 31
32 Polyploidy and speciation Autopolyploid Meiosis 2n = 6 4n = 12 Figure Polyploidy and speciation Allopolyploid Species A 2n = 6 Meiosis Meiosis Gametes n = 3 Fertilization Interspecific Species 2n = 6 Mitosis 2n = 14 Meiosis Meiosis Diploid gametes n = 6 Selffertilization Selffertilization Tetraploid zygote n = 12 Species B 2n = 6 Gametes n = 3 Diploid gametes n = 6 Figure Polyploidy and speciation Allopolyploid Triticum monococcum (einkorn) Unknown wild wheat Triticum turgidum (emmer) Triticum tauschii Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) Sterile hybrid 14AA X 14BB 14AB 28AABB x 14DD 42AABBDD Figure Page 32
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