Mechanical Wave Measurements. Electromagnetic Wave Techniques. Geophysical Methods GEOPHYSICAL SITE CHARACTERIZATION. Mechanical Wave Geophysics
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1 Geophysical Methods GEOPHYSICAL SITE CHARACTERIZATION Mechanical Wave Measurements Electromagnetic Wave Techniques Mechanical Wave Measurements Crosshole Tests (CHT) Downhole Tests (DHT) Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves Seismic Refraction Suspension Logging Electromagnetic Wave Techniques Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM) Surface Resistivity (SR) Magnetometer Surveys (MT) Mechanical Wave Geophysics Nondestructive measurements (γ s < 1 - %) Both borehole geophysics and non-invasive types (conducted across surface). Measurements of wave dispersion: velocity, frequency, amplitude, attenuation. Determine layering, elastic properties, stiffness, damping, and inclusions Four basic wave types: Compression (P), Shear (S), Rayleigh (R), and Love (L). Mechanical Wave Geophysics Compression (P-) wave is fastest wave; easy to generate. Shear (S-) wave is second fastest wave. Is directional and polarized. Most fundamental wave to geotechnique. Rayleigh (R-) or surface wave is very close to S-wave velocity (9 to 9%). Hybrid P-S wave at ground surface boundary. Love (L-) wave: interface boundary effect Mechanical Body Waves Amplitude Mechanical Body Waves Initial S R Time P-wave Oscilloscope P Hammer Source Receiver (Geophone) S-wave Source Rich in Compression Mode
2 Amplitude Hammer Source Mechanical Body Waves Oscilloscope P S R Receiver (Geophone) Source Rich in Shear Mode Time Mechanical Waves (Compression) P - Wave Velocities Steel Intact Rocks Weathered Rocks Ice Till Sand Clay Sea Water Fresh Water Compression Wave Velocity, V p (m/s) Mechanical Waves (Shear) Geophysical Equipment S - Wave V elocities Steel Intact Rocks Weathered Rocks Ice Till Sand Clay Sea Water } V s = Fresh Water 1 3 Shear Wave Velocity, V S (m/s) Seismograph Portable Analyzer Spectrum Analyzer Velocity Recorder Seismic Reflection Seismic Reflection
3 Seismic Refraction Seismic Refraction ASTM D 777 Note: V p1 < V p Determine depth to rock layer, z R Source (Plate) x1 x x3 z R x oscilloscope t1 t Vertical Geophones t3 t Soil: V p1 Rock: V p t values Travel Time (seconds)..1.1 z x c = Seismic Refraction Horizontal Soil Layer over Rock V V V p + V c p p1 p1 V p = m/s x c = 1. m. 1 Depth to Rock: V p1 = 13 m/s z c =. m. 1 3 Distance From Source (meters) x values 1 Results from Seismic Refraction Shear Wave Velocity, V s Fundamental measurement in all solids (steel, concrete, wood, soils, rocks) Initial small-strain stiffness represented by shear modulus: G = ρ Τ V s (alias G dyn = G max = G ) Applies to all static & dynamic problems at small strains (γ s < 1 - ) Applicable to both undrained & drained loading cases in geotechnical engineering. Crosshole Seismic Testing Equipment (ASTM D )
4 Oscilloscope t Test Depth Downhole Hammer (Source) packer Note: Verticality of casing must be established by slope inclinometers to correct distances x with depth. PVC-cased Borehole Pump x = fctn(z) from inclinometers Shear Wave Velocity: V s = x/ t Slope Inclinometer x Crosshole Testing ASTM D PVC-cased Borehole Paul Mayne/GT Velocity Transducer (Geophone Receiver) Slope Inclinometer Results from Crosshole Seismic Tests Reference: McLamore, Anderson, & Espana (197), ASTM STP Downhole Seismic Setup and Testing Equipment Raw Downhole Seismic P-and S-Wave Data Wilson, et al., (197) Proceedings, Earthquake Engrg. & Soil Dynamics, ASCE Conference Pasadena, CA Wilson, et al., (197) ASCE EESD Oscilloscope Pump Downhole Testing Horizontal Plank with normal load In-Situ Surface Wave Testing Signal Analyzer t Hammer x Paul Mayne/GT Accelerometer Source Sensors z 1 z packer Layer 1 Test Depth Interval Shear Wave Velocity: V s = R/ t R 1 = z 1 + x R = z + x Horizontal Velocity Transducers (Geophone Receivers) Cased Borehole Rayleigh Surface Waves Layer Layer 3 Layer
5 Surface Wave Measurements Shear Wave Measurements Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (transient) Continuous Surface Waves (CSW): variable excitation using surface vibrator Modal Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) Passive Analysis of Surface Waves (low frequency content) Seismic Piezocone Test (SCPTu) Shear Wave Methods Seismic Piezocone Test Cost to Profile V s to 3 m depth: Crosshole $ 1, to $1, Downhole $, to $ 7, Obtains Four Independent Measurements with Depth: Hybrid of Penetrometer with Downhole Geophysics V s SASW $, to $3, Suspension Logging (deep > m) Cone Tip Stress, q t Penetration Porewater Pressure,u f s SCPTu $ 1, to $, which includes readings: q t, f s, u b, t, V s Sleeve Friction, f s Arrival Time of Downhole Shear Wave, t s u u 1 o q c
6 Manual Shear Wave Sources Automated Seismic Sources Downhole Shear Wave Velocity Amplitude Time (ms) Downhole Shear Waves Left Strike Right Strike CROSSOVER Method. Anchoring System Automated Source Polarized Wave Downhole V s with excellent soil coupling. Amplitude Time (ms) Shear Wave at.1 m Shear Wave at 9. m CROSSCORRELATION Maximum crosscorrelation at Dt =.7 ms Shear wave velocity = 1 m/s Time shift (ms) - - Complete Set of Shear Wave Trains Mud Island Site A, Memphis TN Comparison of Shear Wave Methods Shear Wave Velocity, Vs (m/s) 1 3 Reflection/Refraction 1 SH Refraction Depth (m) 1 Downhole (SCPTu) Mud Island, (Site B) Geophysics Comparisons 3
7 SCPTU Sounding Memphis, Shelby County, TN qt (MPa) fs (kpa) u (kpa) Vs (m/sec) d = 3.7 mm V s More Measurements Depth (m) f s u is More Better q t Specialized In-Situ Tests Borehole Shear Test (BHT) Push-In Pressuremeter Lateral Stress Cone Vibrocone Penetrometer for Liquefaction Self-Boring Pressuremeter Tests Iowa Stepped Blade (ISB) Vision Cone (VisCPT) Torsional Impulse Shear Device Cone Pressuremeter (CPMT) Push-in Total Stress Cells (TSC) Hydraulic Fracturing (HF) Hybrid In-Situ Tests Combination of Two Tests: Cone Pressuremeter (CPT + PMT) Seismic Cone Penetrometer (SCPTù) with dissipation (DHT + CPTu) Seismic Flat Dilatometer (SDMTà) with dissipation (DHT + DMT) Resistivity Piezocone (RCPTu): combine electrical conductivity + CPTu. Dilatocone (DMT + CPT) Saturated Unit Weight of Geomaterials (Burns & Mayne, TRR 199)
8 Unit Weight Evaluation for Saturated Geomaterials (Mayne, In-Situ Measurement 1 Bali) Sat. Unit Weight, γt (kn/m 3 ) Saturated Soil Materials: Additional z (m) = n = 13 γt (kn/m 3 ) =.3 log Vs Log z 1 Rock with Vs (m/s) and depth z (m) Materials n = 77 r 1 =. S.E. = Intact Clays Fissured Clays Silts Peat 1 Sands Gravels Weathered Rx Intact Rocks Seismic Flat Dilatometer (SDMT) Shear Wave Velocity, V s (m/s) Seismic DMTs at UMASS, Amherst True-Interval Seismic Dilatometer (SDMT) Lift-off Pressure p o (bars) Expansion Pressure p1 (bars) 1 1 Travel Time of Shear Wave (ms) SDMT1 SDMT SDMT Depth (m) SDMT 1 DMT 3 DMT SDT 3 SDMT SDMT SDMT in Layered Soils of Venetian Lagoon DMT Pressures (kpa) Shear Wave, V s (m/s) Seismic Piezocone in Soft Chicago Clays Northwestern University Tip Resistance q T (MPa) 1 1 Sleeve Friction f s (kpa) Porewater Pressure u (kpa) 1 1 Friction Ratio FR (%) 1 Shear Wave Velocity V s (m/s) 1 3 Depth (meters) 1 1 Po P1 1 1 True- SDMT Pseudo- SCPT Treporti Embankment Depth (m)
9 Depth (m) Tip Stress, q T (MPa) FREQUENT INTERVAL V s METHOD Shear Wave, V s (m/s) Pseudo SCPTu True- Interval Probe Lake Michigan Special True- Interval V s Probe in Soft Chicago Clays, Northwestern University Electromagnetic Wave Geophysics Surface Mapping Techniques: Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Electrical Resistivity (ER) Surveys Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM) Magnetometer Surveys (MS) Downhole Techniques Resistivity probes, MIPs, RCPTu -d and 3-d Tomography Electromagnetic Wave Geophysics Nondestructive methods Non-invasive; conducted across surface. Measurements of electrical & magnetic properties of the ground: resistivity (conductivity), permittivity, dielectric, and magnetic fields. Cover wide spectrum in frequencies (1 Hz < f < 1 Hz). Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Xadar Sensors & Software GeoRadar Electrical Resisitivity Measurements Electrical Resisitivity Measurements
10 Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM) References on Geophysics Application of Geophysical Methods to Highway Related Problems (FHWA Manual DTFH--P-3; 3) Soils and Waves by Santamarina, Klein, and Fam (1, Wiley & Sons) ISSMGE TC 1 Geophysics in Geotechnical Engineering: RCPTu Seismic Resistivity Soundings (SRCPTu) Combined RCPTu1 and SCPTu at Mud Island, Memphis Shear Wave Tip Resistance Sleeve Friction Pore Pressure Conductivity V s (m/s) q T (MPa) f s (kpa) U 1 and (kpa) k (ms/m) SB-1 SB-1 SB- u SB- u Depth (m) ss Resistivity (or Conductivity) Penetrometers Dielectric (or Permittivity) Penetrometers Applicability of In-Situ Tests Subsurface Profile Developed from Geotechnical Investigations In-Situ Test Method CLAYS SILTS SANDS GRAVELS Cobbles/ Boulders SPT CPT DMT PMT VST Geophysics Grain Size (mm) Elevation (meters MSL) SPT-N Horizontal Distance (meters) Boring HB- HB- HB- HB- HB Clay Crust 11 Excavation Subgrade Alluvial Clayey 1 7 SILT (ML) Silty SAND (SM) 31 GRAY SAND (SP) 3 31 Eocene CLAY (CH) 9
11 Drilling & Sampling Geophysics Constitutive Models Fully Integrated Ground Behavior Subsurface Profile Laboratory Testing Analytical Modeling Soil Parameters Evaluation e o, γ T, σ vo, D R, σ p, OCR, G o, D, K o, ν, φ, Ψ, Λ, Γ, c, k, c v, K, M, G, E, C c, C r, C s, C α, s u, E u Constitutive Models In-Situ Testing Numerical Simulation Silty CLAY: φ = 9.1 o E = 1 MPa K o =.7 Silty SAND: φ = 39.1 o E = 9 MPa K o = 1. Sandy SILT: φ = 37 o E = MPa K o =.7
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