A 8 ECTS credit course autumn opintoviikon kurssi sysksyllä 2008
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1 Introduction A 8 ECTS credit course autumn opintoviikon kurssi sysksyllä lectures Mon 12-14, Tue in D116 weeks 38-42, (no lectures on week 39) given by Kenneth Österberg, room B323, Kenneth.Osterberg@helsinki.fi exercise session Thu in D116 starting week 40 given by Fredrik Oljemark, room B322, Fredrik.Oljemark@helsinki.fi Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/1
2 Introduction Course Content Accelerator part (follows partly E. Wilson: An Introduction to Particle Accelerators) Particle Accelerator History & Basics Transverse Beam Dynamics & Accelerator Lattice Longitudinal Beam Dynamics Accelerating Cavities Electron Dynamics Imperfections & Instabilities Colliders & Cooling; The Large Hadron Collider Future Colliders & Applications of Accelerators Experiment part (follows partly D. Green: The Physics of Particle Detectors) Particle Detector History & Basics Particle Interaction with Matter Tracking, Tracking Detectors & Vertexing Scintillation & Photon Detectors Energy measurement & Jet Reconstruction Particle Identification Detector Systems, Trigger and Data Acquisition The LHC Experiments Applications of Particle Detectors Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/2
3 Introduction Literature Text books E. Wilson: An Introduction to Particle Accelerators, Oxford University Press, D. Green: The Physics of Particle Detectors, Cambridge University Press, K. Kleinknecht: Detectors for Particle Radiation, Cambridge University Press, C. Grupen: Particle Detectors, Cambridge University Press, G. Knoll: Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd edition, Wiley, W. R. Leo: Techniques for Nuclear and Particle Physics Experiments, 2nd edition, Springer, Other resources Particle Data Group: Reviews on Experimental Methods and Colliders Proceedings of CERN Accelerator Schools Particle Data Briefbook CERN Summer Student Lectures Course Grading Exercises (8-10 papers) 1/3, two course exams (one on accelerators, one on experiments) 1/3 each. Exercises given Tue, returned next Mon (first exercise paper will be given next week) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/3
4 Particle accelerators To study structures «wavelength of light need something else than (light)microscopes!! particle wave: = h/p h = Planck s constant = wave length p = particle momentum Use particle microscopes i.e. accelerators In particle accelerators charged particles accelerated to light velocity in a vacuum chamber ( TV analogy ). Modern particle accelerators usually colliders = two particle beams hit each other in controlled positions. Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/4
5 Large Hadron Collider Succesfully launched: 1 st beams around rings last week!! Now slowly working towards 1 st collisions injected beam circulating beam Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/5
6 Applications of accelerators Synchrotron Light (ESRF) 5'-exonuclease from bacteriophage T5. Spallation Neutron diffraction (ISIS) Structure of HighTc Superconductor Heavy ion fusion Laser beam simulation Proton therapy (PSI) Gantry Ion beams (GSI) Etched ion tracks in polymer foil. Surface treatment Sterilisation Polymerisation Nuclear waste handling Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/6
7 Introduction Idealistic views of an elementary particle reaction e e e + ( hadronization) Z Z 0 q qq e - - q time Usually see only end products, not reaction itself. To reconstruct reaction mechanism & involved particles, need maximum info on end products (particle type, momentum, energy, trajectory...) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/7
8 Interaction of radiation with matter Interactions of different types of particles in CMS experiment at LHC Interaction of radiation with matter basis of detectors Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/8
9 Introduction A W pair in ALEPH e + e - (s=181 GeV) W + W - qq 2 hadronic jets + missing momentum 10 m _ 10 m Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/9
10 The DELPHI experiment: MOI!! ~ 500 physicists & ~ 100 engineers (NB! LHC experiments ~ 2000 physicists) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/10
11 Applications of detectors outside HEP Medical sciences Geophysical sciences Meteorology Space research Nuclear research Safety & inspection dental image with silicon sensors PET (positron emission tomography) camera (using HPD s = hybrid photo diodes) for human head images. Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/11
12 Applications of detectors outside HEP automated cargo inspection system based on MWPC (multi wire proportional chambers) PET (positron emission tomography) camera for images of human heads. Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/12
![in four-vectors) Also set = 1 = [E] [T] [L] = [T] = 1/ [E] (= GeV 1 ) One degree-of-freedom left so choose [E] = GeV 1 GeV is a tiny portion of energy. 1 GeV = 1.6 10 10 J m bee 1 g = 5.](/docs-images/91/106734615/images/13-2.jpg "6 10 23 GeV/c 2 v bee 1 m/s E bee = 0.5 10 3 J = 3.1 10 6 GeV E LHC = 14000 GeV (collision energy in 2009) 4 6.6 10 8 25 GeVs To rehabilitate LHC Stored energy/beam: 3 10 14 protons * 7000 GeV 3.")
13 Natural units Special relativity: Natural units: E p c m c Have 3 fundamental units: length L, time T and energy E 2 natural constants: c m/s, Set c = 1 = [L] / [T] [T] = [L] (applied e.g. in four-vectors) Also set = 1 = [E] [T] [L] = [T] = 1/ [E] (= GeV 1 ) One degree-of-freedom left so choose [E] = GeV 1 GeV is a tiny portion of energy. 1 GeV = J m bee 1 g = GeV/c 2 v bee 1 m/s E bee = J = GeV E LHC = GeV (collision energy in 2009) GeVs To rehabilitate LHC Stored energy/beam: protons * 7000 GeV J a 100 T 300 km/h Now Define E p m v 1 1 c 2 1 [E] = [P] = [m] = 1 GeV 0 1 e.g. = P / E, = E / m, <flight distance> = c, where is the particle s lifetime in its rest frame. Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/13
14 Units and conventions The choice of energy variable (given in ev) is not unique: kinetic energy, T = E m, is used in the domain where the rest energy the kinetic energy (e.g. nuclear physics). total energy, E, is sometimes used at high energies. momentum, P, is normally used at collider experiments (accelerators bend by P, experiments measure dito!!) Useful relations to remember by heart are: c = MeV fm = MeVs e.g. E of a photon: E hc 1240 [fm] Often use four-vectors, the four-momentum : MeV consists of a time component (the energy) & three space components (the momentum vector). Scalar products of four-vectors invariant (i.e. doesn t depend on the frame). Some scalar products very commonly used like for example the two particle invariant mass squared s t Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/14 p E, p p1 p2 E1 E2 p1 p2 m1 m2 2p1 p2 another one is the invariant momentum transfer squared p1 p2 E1 E2 p1 p2 m1 m2 2p1 p2 since m 1 & m 2 constants, s and t will attain their extreme values simultaneously, i.e. when v, hence p1 p2 m1m2 ( found by going to v1 v2 s 1 v m m t m m when v in any frame) ( 1 v2 0)
15 Cross sections The concept of cross sections Cross sections or differential cross sections dd are used to express the probability of interactions between elementary particles. Example 2 colliding particle beams beam spot area A N 1 f = collision frequency N 2 What is the interaction rate R int.? R int f = L has dimension area! Practical unit: Luminosity L [cm 2 s 1 ] 1 barn (b) = cm 2 Example: Scattering from target N int =R int t target scattered beam solid angle element d. n A incident beam = area density of scattering centers in target N scat () N inc n A d = dd () N inc n A d Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/15
16 Luminosity Define luminosity precisely: imagine a particle colliding with a bunch of cross section area A. Probability of collision is: (E.Wilson) N part/ bunch A for N part/bunch particles in both beams Ultimate challenge to high energy colliders: the production rate of interesting interactions fall as 1/s ( 1/E CM2 ), hence need to improve luminosity a factor 100 for each factor 10 energy increase to benefit from energy increase (distances at which structures probed 1/s). N 2 part / bunch and finally take into account the bunch crossing frequency f b = # of bunches multiplied by the revolution frequency. 2 N part / bunch Event rate L, where L (= luminosity) A f b A (E.Wilson) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/16
17 accelerator history and basics History of Accelerators: need for accelerators electrostatic accelerators time dependent fields betatrons linacs cyclotrons weak focusing syncrotrons phase stability strong focusing colliders Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/17
18 the history of accelerators = h / p (1.2 fm / p [GeV]) (de Broglie, 1923) E = mc 2 (Einstein, 1905) (E.Wilson) (E.Wilson) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/18
19 colliding beam v. fixed target Following was known early... E c.m. W = Energy available in center-of-mass for making new particles For fixed target : E c.m. 2m T E B... and we rapidly run out of money trying to gain a factor 10 in c.m. energy But a storage ring, colliding two beams, gives: E c.m. 2 E B Problem: Smaller probability that accelerated particles collide... "Luminosity" of a collider L N 1 N 2 1 A c 2R cm 2 s 1 but took a long time to realize needed dense & well-controlled beams!! Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/19
20 electrostatic accelerators First accelerators electrostatic (like electron gun in a TV), electrons emitted by heated filement in vacuum & accelerated in a static electric potential (E.Wilson) limited to a few MeV (even in staged approach) due to electrical breakdown van de Graaff (1931) moving belt charging up a high-voltage terminal (e.g. a metal ball) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/20
21 electrostatic accelerators Cockcroft & Walton (1932) ladder of diodes & capacitors MeV accelerator method still commonly used for ion sources, high voltage power supplies, lightning safety testing systems... used in high voltage direct current applications modern 100 kev equivalent Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/21
22 time dependent field Continious acceleration through same gap? Maxwell equations time dependent magnetic field db E dt E ds t Need suitable boundary conditions iris structure S B nda R. Wideröe 1928: ray transformer varying magnetic field via induction Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/22
23 linear accelerators Next : pulsed operation in electrodes ( drift tube linac ). Realised in mid-40 s, high frequency oscillators available. Particle gains energy at each gap Alvarez linac (1946) with 360 o phase shift acceleration at each gap Cylinder protects particles from deacceleration Lengths of drift tubes follow increasing velocity Spacing becomes regular as v approaches c Wideröe s thesis work 1928: a 2-stage linac with 180 o phase shift Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/23
24 modern linacs a 400 MeV linac at Fermilab inside Fermilab linac Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/24
25 Cyclotron Lawrence 1930: make particle follow circular path between two magnetic poles & repeatedly accelerated in same gap Cyclotron: (rf frequency constant when v << c) (E.Wilson) (E.Wilson) e v B = m v 2 / (v << c) B = p / e (relativistic) Cyclotron frequency: f = v / 2 = e B / 2 m Used for protons & heavier ions. Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/25
26 cyclotron demo E. Lawrence (right) 1939 at LBL s 60-inch cyclotron Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/26
27 weak focusing in the begining people just built cyclotrons Lawrence s student McMillan experimented with shims result a non-expected one nevertheless the cyclotron started accelerating much higher currents invented principle of vertical focusing in a cyclotron Limitations of cyclotrons: Need to change either field or frequency ( synchrocyclotrons ) once particle becomes relativistic. With clever solutions several hundred MeVs attained. Cyclotrons still very popular today. Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/27
28 Synchroton Oliphant 1943: vary both frequency & magnetic field + fix particle trajectory to circle while accelerating. Synchtrotron: frequency and field vs E B The 3 GeV Cosmotron at Brookhaven 1952 Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/28
29 Betatron Wideröe s concept realized by Kerst & Seber - pulsed operation & particles at fixed radius Kerst & Seber 1941: the 300 MeV betatron Woolich Betatron proof of syncrotron principle 1946 Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/29
30 Acceleration principles electric fields accelerate charged particles most efficient electric field source: electromagnetic wave use Radio Frequencies to match velocity of particles: e.g. LEP 2R = 27 km; v = c; frequency = c/ 2R = 11 khz in RF cavity longitudinal component of E field moves in phase with beam particles will be continuously accelerated as long as phase relationship maintained Principle of phase stability (particles lagging behind accelerated more than average & vice versa) Veksler & McMillan 1945 Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/30
31 Colliders 1950 s strong focusing ( alternating-gradient ): particles are focused by alternating convex/concave lenses through the centres of defocusing lenses. Focusing improved significantly. Strong focusing at the Cosmotron Courant, Livingston & Snyder 1958 Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/31
32 Colliders very focused particle beams colliders Intersecting Storage Ring - ISR (1971) two ring collider providing either proton-proton likelhcor proton-antiproton collisions Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/32
33 Colliders principal components of a particle accelerator accelerating cavities bending magnets focusing magnets vacuum chamber Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/33
34 Colliders Super Proton Syncrotron - SPS (1976) upgraded to proton-antiproton collider ring proton & antiproton circulating opposite ways like Tevatron stochastic cooling (for sufficient antiproton luminosity) discovery of W & Z 1983 Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/34
35 Colliders Z factory LEP (1989) 27 km circumference electron (positron) against proton HERA (1992) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/35
36 Colliders bending power limit for conventional magnets at 2 T s.c. dipole magnets 4 T Tevatron, 8 T LHC synchrotron radiation limit for electron-positron colliders high-intensity linear collider what next? muon colliders (works if muons accelerated fast enough) Intro and Accelerator History & Basics Kenneth Österberg I/36
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