Advances in Structured Prediction

Transcription

1 Advances in Structured Prediction John Langford Microsoft Research Hal Daumé III U Maryland me@hal3.name Slides and more:

2 Examples of structured prediction joint The monster ate a big sandwich

3 image credit: Richard Padgett Sequence labeling x = the monster ate the sandwich y = Dt Nn Vb Dt Nn x = Yesterday I traveled to Lille y = - PER - - LOC The monster ate a big sandwich

4 Natural language parsing [root] object OUTPUT n-mod n-mod subject n-mod p-mod n-mod NLP algorithms use a kitchen sink of features INPUT

5 (Bipartite) matching image credit: Ben Taskar; Liz Jurrus

6 Machine translation

7 Image segmentation image credit: Daniel Muñoz

8 Protein secondary structure prediction

9 image credit: Daniel Muñoz Standard solution methods 1.Each prediction is independent 2.Shared parameters via multitask learning 3.Assume tractable graphical model; optimize 4.Hand-crafted

10 image credit: Daniel Muñoz Predicting independently h : features of nearby voxels class Ensure output is coherent at test time Very simple to implement, often efficient Cannot capture correlations between predictions Cannot optimize a joint loss

11 image credit: Daniel Muñoz Prediction with multitask bias h : features (hidden representation) yes/no Share (hidden representation) across all classes All advantages of predicting independently May implicitly capture correlations Learning may be hard ( or not?) Still not optimizing a joint loss

12 image credit: Daniel Muñoz Optimizing graphical models Encode output as a graphical model Learn parameters of that model to maximize: p(true labels input) or cvx u.b. on loss(true labels, predicted labels) Guaranteed consistent outputs Can capture correlations explicitly Assumed independence assumptions may not hold Computationally intractable with too many edges or non-decomposable loss function

13 Back to the original problem... How to optimize a discrete, joint loss? Input: x X Truth: y Y(x) Outputs: Y(x) Predicted: ŷ Y(x) Loss: loss(y, ŷ) Data: (x,y) ~ D I can can a can Pro Md Vb Dt Nn Pro Md Md Dt Vb Pro Md Md Dt Nn Pro Md Nn Dt Md Pro Md Nn Dt Vb Pro Md Nn Dt Nn Pro Md Vb Dt Md Pro Md Vb Dt Vb

14 Back to the original problem... How to optimize a discrete, joint loss? Input: x X Truth: y Y(x) Outputs: Y(x) Predicted: ŷ Y(x) Loss: loss(y, ŷ) Data: (x,y) ~ D Goal: find h H such that h(x) Y(x) minimizing E (x,y)~d [ loss(y, h(x)) ] based on N samples (x n, y n ) ~ D

15 image credit: M. Pawan Kumar & Wikipedia Challenges Output space is too big to exhaustively search: Typically exponential in size of input implies y must decompose in some way (often: x has many pieces to label) Loss function has combinatorial structure: - Intersection over union - Edit Distance

16 image credit: Wikipedia & Ashutosh Saxena Decomposition of label Decomposition of y often implies an ordering I can can a can Pro Md Vb Dt Nn But sometimes not so obvious... (we'll come back to this case later...)

17 Search spaces When y decomposes in an ordered manner, a sequential decision making process emerges I decision Pro Md Vb Dt Nn action can decision Pro Md Vb Dt Nn action can decision Pro Md Vb Dt Nn action

18 Search spaces When y decomposes in an ordered manner, a sequential decision making process emerges a can Pro Md Vb Dt Nn Pro Md Vb Dt Nn Encodes an output ŷ = ŷ(e) from which loss(y, ŷ) can be computed (at training time) e end

19 Policies A policy maps observations to actions ( ) =a obs. input: x timestep: t partial traj: τ anything else

20 Versus reinforcement learning o 1 o 2 o 3 o T lo ss a 1 a 2 a 3 at-1 a T =π(o 1 ) Classifier Goal: min π E [ loss(π) ] In learning to search (L2S): Labeled data at training time can construct good/optimal policies Can reset and try the same example many times

21 Labeled data Reference policy Given partial traj. a 1,a 2,...,a t-1 and true label y The minimum achievable loss is: min (a t,a t+1,...) loss(y, ŷ(a)) The optimal action is the corresponding a t The optimal policy is the policy that always selects the optimal action

22 Ingredients for learning to search Training data: (xn, y n ) ~ D Output space: Y(x) Loss function: loss(y, ŷ) Decomposition: {o}, {a}, Reference policy: π ref(o, y)

23 An analogy from playing Mario From Mario AI competition 2009 Input: Output: Jump in {0,1} Right in {0,1} Left in {0,1} Speed in {0,1} High level goal: Watch an expert play and learn to mimic her behavior Extracted 27K+ binary features from last 4 observations (14 binary features for every cell)

24 Training (expert) Video credit: Stéphane Ross, Geoff Gordon and Drew Bagnell

25 Warm-up: Supervised learning 1.Collect trajectories from expert π ref 2.Store as dataset D = { ( o, π ref (o,y) ) o ~ π ref } 3.Train classifier π on D Let π play the game! ref π

26 Test-time execution (sup. learning) Video credit: Stéphane Ross, Geoff Gordon and Drew Bagnell

27 What's the (biggest) failure mode? The expert never gets stuck next to pipes Classifier doesn't learn to recover! ref π

28 Warm-up II: Imitation learning 1. Collect trajectories from expert π ref 2. Dataset D 0 = { ( o, π ref (o,y) ) o ~ π ref } 3. Train π 1 on D 0 4. Collect new trajectories from π 1 But let the expert steer! 5. Dataset D 1 = { ( o, π ref (o,y) ) o ~ π 1 } 6. Train π 2 on D 0 D 1 If N = T log T, L(π n ) < T N + O(1) for some n π 1 π 2 ref π In general: Dn = { ( o, π ref (o,y) ) o ~ π n } Train πn+1 on i n D i

29 Test-time execution (DAgger) Video credit: Stéphane Ross, Geoff Gordon and Drew Bagnell

30 What's the biggest failure mode? Classifier only sees right versus not-right No notion of better or worse No partial credit Must have a single target answer π 1 π 2 π*

31 Aside: cost-sensitive classification Classifier: h : x [K] Multiclass classification Data: (x,y) X [K] Goal: minh Pr( h(x) y ) Cost-sensitive classification Data: (x,c) X [0, )K Goal: minh E (x,c) [ c h(x) ]

32 Learning to search: AggraVaTe 1.Let learned policy π drive for t timesteps to obs. o 2.For each possible action a: Take action a, and let expert πref drive the rest Record the overall loss, ca 3.Update π based on example: (o, c 1, c 2,..., c K ) 4.Goto (1) π

33 Learning to search: AggraVaTe E? E loss=0 loss=.2 1.Generate an initial rollin trajectory using the current policy 2.Foreach decision on that trajectory with obs. o: a)foreach possible action a (one-step deviations) i. Take that action one-step deviations ii. Complete this trajectory using reference policy iii.obtain a final loss, c a b)generate a cost-sensitive classification example: ( o, c ) E loss=.8 rollout

34 Learning to search: AggraVaTe E? E loss=0 loss=.2 1.Generate an initial rollin trajectory using the current policy 2.Foreach decision on that trajectory with obs. o: a)foreach possible action a (one-step deviations) i. Take that action one-step deviations ii. Complete this trajectory using reference policy iii.obtain a final loss, c a b)generate a cost-sensitive classification example: ( o, c ) E loss=.8 rollout Often it's possible to analytically compute this loss without having to execute a roll-out!

35 Example I: Sequence labeling Receive input: x = the monster ate the sandwich y = Dt Nn Vb Dt Nn Make a sequence of predictions: x = the monster ate the sandwich ŷ = Dt Dt Dt Dt Dt Pick a timestep and try all perturbations there: x = the monster ate the sandwich ŷ Dt = Dt Dt Vb Dt Nn l=1 ŷ Nn = Dt Nn Vb Dt Nn l=0 ŷ Vb = Dt Vb Vb Dt Nn l=1 Compute losses and construct example: ( { w=monster, p=dt, }, [1,0,1] )

36 Example II: Graph labeling Task: label nodes of a graph given node features (and possibly edge features) Example: WebKB webpage labeling U Wisconsin U Washington U Texas Cornell Node features: text on web page Edge features: text in hyperlinks

37 Example II: Graph labeling How to linearize? Like belief propagation might! Pick a starting node (A), run BFS out Alternate outward and inward passes E B A D H Linearization: ABCDEFGHI HGFEDCBA BCDEFGHI C I HGFEDCBA F G...

38 Example II: Graph labeling 1.Pick a node (= timestep) 2.Construct example based on neighbors' labels 3.Perturb current node's label to get losses B A H E C D I F G

39 Outline 1 Empirics 2 Analysis 3 Programming 4 Others and Issues

40 What part of speech are the words? POS Tagging (tuned hps) Accuracy (per word) OAA L2S L2S (ft) CRFsgd 1s 10s 1m 10m 30m1h CRF++ StrPerc StrSVM StrSVM Training time (minutes)

41 A demonstration 1 w Despite 2 w continuing 3 w problems 1 w in 4 w its 5 w newsprint 5 w business...

42 A demonstration 1 w Despite 2 w continuing 3 w problems 1 w in 4 w its 5 w newsprint 5 w business... vw -b 24 -d wsj.train.vw -c search_task sequence search 45 search_alpha 1e-8 search_neighbor_features -1:w,1:w ax -1w,+1w -f foo.reg vw -t -i foo.reg wsj.test.vw

43 Is this word a name or not? Named Entity Recognition (tuned hps) F-score (per entity) OAA CRF++ L2S StrPerc L2S (ft) StrSVM2 CRFsgd s 10s 1m 10m Training time (minutes)

44 How fast in evaluation? POS NER Prediction (test-time) Speed L2S L2S (ft) CRFsgd CRF++ StrPerc StrSVM StrSVM Thousands of Tokens per Second

45 Entity Relation Goal: nd the Entities and then nd their Relations Method Entity F1 Relation F1 Train Time Structured SVM seconds L2S seconds L2S uses 100 LOC.

46 Find dependency structure of sentences L2S Dyna SNN UAS (higher=better) Ar* Bu Ch Da Du En Ja Po* Sl* Sw Avg language L2S uses 300 LOC.

47 Outline 1 Empirics 2 Analysis 3 Programming 4 Others and Issues

48 Eect of Roll-in and Roll-out Policies roll-out roll-in Reference Learned. Reference Half-n-half Learned Inconsistent s 1 a b s 2 c e d e 1, 0 e 2, 10 e 3, 100 s 3 f e 4, 0

49 Eect of Roll-in and Roll-out Policies roll-out roll-in Reference Learned. Reference Half-n-half Learned Inconsistent Theorem Roll-in with ref: 0 cost-sensitive regret unbounded joint regret

50 Eect of Roll-in and Roll-out Policies roll-out roll-in Reference Learned Reference Half-n-half Learned Consistent No local opt c Inconsistent e 1, 1 s 1 a b s 2 c d e 2, 1 ɛ e 3, 1+ɛ s 3 d e 4, 0

51 Eect of Roll-in and Roll-out Policies roll-out roll-in Reference Learned Reference Half-n-half Learned Consistent No local opt Inconsistent Theorem Roll-out with Ref: 0 cost-sensitive regret 0 joint regret (but not local optimality)

52 Eect of Roll-in and Roll-out Policies roll-out roll-in Reference Learned Reference Half-n-half Learned Consistent No local opt Inconsistent Reinf. L. Theorem Ignore Ref: Equivalent to reinforcement learning.

53 Eect of Roll-in and Roll-out Policies roll-out roll-in Reference Half-n-half Learned Reference Learned Consistent No local opt Inconsistent Consistent Local Opt Reinf. L. Theorem Roll-out with p = 0.5 Ref and p = 0.5 Learned: 0 cost-sensitive regret 0 joint regret + locally optimal See LOLS paper, Wednesday 11:20 Van Gogh

54 AggreVaTe Regret Decomposition π ref = reference policy π = stochastic average learned policy J(π) = expected loss of π. Theorem J( π) J(π ref )

55 AggreVaTe Regret Decomposition π ref = reference policy π = stochastic average learned policy J(π) = expected loss of π. Theorem J( π) J(π ref ) [ ] T E n,te x D Q πref (x, ˆπ ṱ n ) Q πref (x, π ref ) πn T = number of steps ˆπ n = nth learned policy Dπ ṱ n = distribution over x at time t induced by ˆπ n Q π (x, π ) = loss of π at x then π to nish

56 Proof For all π let π t play π for rounds 1...t then play π ref for rounds t T. So π T = π and π 0 = π ref

57 Proof For all π let π t play π for rounds 1...t then play π ref for rounds t T. So π T = π and π 0 = π ref J(π) J(π ref ) = T J(πt ) J(π t 1 ) (Telescoping sum) t=1

58 Proof For all π let π t play π for rounds 1...t then play π ref for rounds t T. So π T = π and π 0 = π ref J(π) J(π ref ) = T J(πt ) J(π t 1 ) (Telescoping sum) t=1 ] [Q π ref (x, π) Q πref (x, π ref ) = T t=1 E x D t π since for all π, t, J(π) = E x D t π Qπ (x, π)

59 Proof For all π let π t play π for rounds 1...t then play π ref for rounds t T. So π T = π and π 0 = π ref J(π) J(π ref ) = T J(πt ) J(π t 1 ) (Telescoping sum) t=1 ] [Q π ref (x, π) Q πref (x, π ref ) = T t=1 E x D t π since for all π, t, J(π) = E x D Qπ (x, π) π [Q t ] π ref (x, π) Q πref (x, π ref ) = T E t E x D t π

60 Proof For all π let π t play π for rounds 1...t then play π ref for rounds t T. So π T = π and π 0 = π ref J(π) J(π ref ) = T J(πt ) J(π t 1 ) (Telescoping sum) t=1 ] [Q π ref (x, π) Q πref (x, π ref ) = T t=1 E x D t π since for all π, t, J(π) = E x D Qπ (x, π) π [Q t ] π ref (x, π) Q πref (x, π ref ) = T E t E x D t π So J( π) J(π ref ) [Q π ref (x, ˆπn ) Q π ref (x, π ref ) ] = T E t,ne x D ṱ πn

61 Outline 1 Empirics 2 Analysis 3 Programming 4 Others and Issues

62 Lines of Code 1000 lines of code for POS CRFSGD CRF++ S-SVM Search

63 How? Sequential_RUN(examples) 1: for i = 1 to len(examples) do 2: prediction predict(examples[i], examples[i].label) 3: loss(prediction examples[i].label) 4: end for

64 How? Sequential_RUN(examples) 1: for i = 1 to len(examples) do 2: prediction predict(examples[i], examples[i].label) 3: loss(prediction examples[i].label) 4: end for Decoder + loss + reference advice

65 RunParser(sentence) 1: stack S {Root} 2: buer B [words in sentence] 3: arcs A 4: while B or S > 1 do 5: ValidActs GetValidActions(S, B) 6: features GetFeat(S, B, A) 7: ref GetGoldAction(S, B) 8: action predict(features, ref, ValidActs) 9: S, B, A Transition(S, B, A, action) 10: end while 11: loss(a[w] A [w], w sentence) 12: return output

66 Program/Search equivalence Theorem: Every algorithm which: 1 Always terminates. 2 Takes as input relevant feature information X. 3 Make 0+ calls to predict. 4 Reports loss on termination. denes a search space, and such an algorithm exists for every search space.

67 It even works in Python def _run(self, sentence): output = [] for n in range(len(sentence)): pos,word = sentence[n] with self.vw.example('w': [word], 'p': [prev_word]) as ex: pred = self.sch.predict(examples=ex, my_tag=n+1, oracle=pos, condition=[(n,'p'), (n-1, 'q')]) output.append(pred) return output

68 Bugs you cannot have 1 Never train/test mismatch.

69 Bugs you cannot have 1 Never train/test mismatch. 2 Never unexplained slow.

70 Bugs you cannot have 1 Never train/test mismatch. 2 Never unexplained slow. 3 Never fail to compensate for cascading failure.

71 Outline 1 Empirics 2 Analysis 3 Programming 4 Others and Issues 1 Families of algorithms. 2 What's missing from learning to search?

72 Imitation Learning Use perceptron-like update when learned deviates from gold standard. Inc. P. Collins & Roark, ACL LaSo Daume III & Marcu, ICML Local Liang et al, ACL Beam P. Xu et al., JMLR Inexact Huang et al, NAACL 2012.

73 Imitation Learning Use perceptron-like update when learned deviates from gold standard. Inc. P. Collins & Roark, ACL LaSo Daume III & Marcu, ICML Local Liang et al, ACL Beam P. Xu et al., JMLR Inexact Huang et al, NAACL Train a classier to mimic an expert's behavior DAgger Ross et al., AIStats Dyna O Goldberg et al., TACL 2014.

74 Learning to Search When the reference policy is optimal Searn Daume III et al., MLJ Aggra Ross & Bagnell,

75 Learning to Search When the reference policy is optimal Searn Daume III et al., MLJ Aggra Ross & Bagnell, When it's not LOLS Chang et al., ICML 2015.

76 Learning to Search When the reference policy is optimal Searn Daume III et al., MLJ Aggra Ross & Bagnell, When it's not LOLS Chang et al., ICML Code in Vowpal Wabbit

77 Inverse Reinforcement Learning Given observed expert behavior, infer the underlying reward function the expert seems to be optimizing

78 Inverse Reinforcement Learning Given observed expert behavior, infer the underlying reward function the expert seems to be optimizing propose Kalman, st sol. Boyd, 1994.

79 Inverse Reinforcement Learning Given observed expert behavior, infer the underlying reward function the expert seems to be optimizing propose Kalman, st sol. Boyd, from sample trajectories only Ng & Russell, ICML 2000

80 Inverse Reinforcement Learning Given observed expert behavior, infer the underlying reward function the expert seems to be optimizing propose Kalman, st sol. Boyd, from sample trajectories only Ng & Russell, ICML 2000 for apprenticeship learning Apprent. Abbeel & Ng, ICML 2004 axmar. Ratli et al., NIPS 2005 MaxEnt Ziebart et al., AAAI 2008

81 What's missing? Automatic Search order Learning to search dependency + search order. Graphical models work given dependencies only.

82 What's missing? The reference policy A good reference policy is often nonobvious... yet critical to performance.

83 What's missing? Ecient Cost-Sensitive Learning When choosing 1-of-k things, O(k) time is not exciting for machine translation.

84 What's missing? GPU fun Vision often requires a GPU. Can that be done?

85 How to optimize discrete joint loss?

86 How to optimize discrete joint loss? 1 Programming complexity.

87 How to optimize discrete joint loss? 1 Programming complexity. Most complex problems addressed independentlytoo complex to do otherwise.

88 How to optimize discrete joint loss? 1 Programming complexity. Most complex problems addressed independentlytoo complex to do otherwise. 2 Prediction accuracy. It had better work well.

89 How to optimize discrete joint loss? 1 Programming complexity. Most complex problems addressed independentlytoo complex to do otherwise. 2 Prediction accuracy. It had better work well. 3 Train speed. Debug/development productivity + maximum data input.

90 How to optimize discrete joint loss? 1 Programming complexity. Most complex problems addressed independentlytoo complex to do otherwise. 2 Prediction accuracy. It had better work well. 3 Train speed. Debug/development productivity + maximum data input. 4 Test speed. Application eciency